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1、<p>  LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR AND EMPLOYEE VOICE:</p><p>  IS THE DOOR REALLY OPEN?</p><p>  In today’s hypercompetitive business environment, employee comments and suggestions intended to impr

2、ove organizational functioning are critical to performance because,as Senge wrote,it is “just not possible any longer to ‘figure it out’ from the top”(1990:4; see also Morrison & Milliken, 2000). Edmondson(1999, 2003

3、), for example, found that the willingness of all members to provide thoughts and ideas about critical work processes characterizes successful learning in various types of teams. Yet, </p><p>  Three broad l

4、ines of research have addressed this line of inquiry to varying degrees. The most systematic research to date has focused on individual differences in personality and demographic characteristics as correlates of voice (C

5、rant, 2003; LePine & Van Dyne,2001). The stated or implicit reasoning in this line of work is that some individuals are simply more likely than others to “go the extra mile”in regard to speaking up. A second line of

6、research, based on Hirschman’s (1970) seminal work </p><p>  Wierba, 1997; Edmondson, 2003; Milliken et al.,2003). Seeking to further develop the contextual stream, we focus on the role that specific lea

7、dership behaviors play in influencing employees’ decisions to voluntarily provide comments or suggestions intended to spark organizational improvement. Qualitative research has identified a number of leader behaviors or

8、attributes — including “approachability” (Milliken et al., 2003; Saunders, Sheppard, Knight, & Roth,1992), “action taking” (Edmondson,</p><p>  The specific purpose of this study was therefore to address

9、 in consistent findings about leadership behavior as an influence on subordinates’ improvement-oriented voice. In a two-phase field study, we addressed the questions,“Is leadership behavior related to subordinate voice?”

10、 and, “If so, why and for what types of employees?” Our study extends the literature in a number of ways. First, few of the labels used to describe leadership findings in previous work correspond directly with constructs

11、 </p><p>  addresses how subordinate performance level might moderate the impact of leadership behavior on voice. Collectively, this research extends understanding of the leadership-voice relationship and po

12、ints to specific ways leaders can foster employee input.</p><p>  LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES</p><p>  The notion of voice stems from the idea that employees recognize some source of dissat

13、isfaction or opportunity for improving their own and/or their organization’s well-being (Hirschman, 1970). Speaking up in such situations can feel risky because they involve pointing out need for improvement in a program

14、 or policy to those who may have devised, be responsible for, or feel personally attached to the status quo. Given this, along with the reality that voice cannot be coerced or readily designed i</p><p>  The

15、oretically, leadership behavior affects this voice calculus for two primary reasons, both related to the resource dependency of subordinates in hierarchical settings (Emerson, 1962; Pfeffer & Salancik, 1978). First,

16、to speak up, by definition, involves sharing one’s ideas with someone with the perceived power to devote organizational attention or resources to the issue raised (French & Raven, 1959). Thus, leaders are inherently

17、important to the voice process because they are its targets. Seco</p><p>  Change-Oriented Leadership</p><p>  Because voice involves suggestions to do something differently, leader behaviors si

18、gnaling an openness to or appreciation for change should be a critical contextual influence on employee willingness to speak up. Descriptions from qualitative research suggest the importance of such behaviors. For exampl

19、e, Edmondson (2003) reported that leaders who explicitly communicated a rationale for change, explained the need for others’ input, and took action on others’ ideas had subordinates who were more w</p><p>  

20、Research on issue selling (voice regarding a specific work improvement or employee treatment topic) has identified management openness as a set of leader behaviors particularly relevant to subordinates’ motivation to spe

21、ak up (Ashford et al., 1998). Managerial openness refers to subordinates’ perceptions that their boss listens to them, is interested in their ideas, gives fair consideration to the ideas presented, and at least sometimes

22、 takes action to address the matter raised. Such behaviors a</p><p>  Like House and Rizzo’s (1972) top management receptiveness concept, openness as related to issue selling has been conceived of primarily

23、as a senior manager behavior. However, managers display these behaviors to a greater or lesser extent at all hierarchical levels. Thus, these behaviors likely influence upward communications by lower-level employees as w

24、ell. Indeed, qualitative research describes managerial openness as a strong influence on employees at many organizational levels (e.g., Ryan & </p><p>  Hypothesis 1. Leaders’ perceived display of openne

25、ss is positively related to subordinates’ improvement-oriented voice. </p><p>  Transformational leaders are positively oriented toward, and more likely to initiate, change (Bass, 1985; Waldman, Javidan, &am

26、p; Varella, 2004). They accomplish change by </p><p>  encouraging employees to move beyond compliance with formal agreements and to become innovative problem solvers (Bass & Riggio, 2006). A number of s

27、pecific transformational behaviors, including individualized consideration and inspirational motivation (Bass, 1985),should be related to the voice calculus. For example, individualized consideration reflects the notion

28、that each employee has specific strengths, interests, and needs for improvement that must be attended to one-on-one rather than via </p><p>  Such transformational leader behaviors lead to increased subordin

29、ate competence and commitment as well as to empowerment and felt responsibility to contribute to an organization’s future (Senge, 1990; Wayne, Shore, & Liden, 1997). For example, coaching is likely to reduce the inti

30、midation associated with raising uncomfortable topics, such as those challenging the status quo. Further, supportive coaching and vision sharing should increase initial motivation to speak up because they lead subordina&

31、lt;/p><p>  Hypothesis 2. Leaders’ perceived transformational behaviors are positively related to subordinates’ improvement-oriented voice.</p><p>  Psychological Safety and Voice</p><p&

32、gt;  In keeping with the argument that employees estimate perceived costs prior to speaking up, psychological safety (the belief that engaging in risky behaviors like voice will not lead to personal harm) has been descri

33、bed as a key affect-laden cognition influencing voice (Ashford et al., 1998; Edmondson, 1999). Put simply, employees who fear significant personal losses from speaking up (e.g., restricted career mobility, loss of suppor

34、t from </p><p>  superiors and peers) are likely to choose “defensive” silence (Van Dyne et al., 2003). Because voice often contains either implicit or explicit criticisms of the status quo and because the t

35、argets of upward voice hold reward and sanction power, leader behaviors are likely to be particularly salient cues that subordinates use in evaluating whether voicing unsolicited comments is personally dangerous (Millike

36、n et al., 2003). After all, most employees lack the courage or commitment to challenge man</p><p>  We therefore hypothesize that psychological safety is a belief that mediates the relationship between the e

37、xternal stimuli provided by leader behaviors and the decision by subordinates to speak up or remain silent. This argument is consistent with the findings of Podsakoff and colleagues (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, &

38、Fetter, 1990) that trust in a leader (with trust defined similarly to psychological safety, as the belief that one will not be harmed by another) mediated the relationship betwe</p><p>  Hypothesis 3. Percei

39、ved psychological safety mediates the relationships between change-oriented leader behaviors and subordinates’ improvement-oriented voice.</p><p>  Subordinate Performance</p><p>  As Ashford an

40、d colleagues (e.g., Ashford et al., 1998) have noted, the performance level of a subordinate may be related to his/her willingness to speak up. Better performers may believe they have more credibility and hence be more l

41、ikely to see voice as a job responsibility rather than an optional citizenship behavior. This argument is consistent with prior research suggesting that employees with higher self-esteem, often a correlate of performance

42、, are more confident of their ability to provid</p><p>  successfully when it appears such input is desired. Conversely, poorer performers may lack the personal confidence or job security to speak up in any

43、context— even when leaders provide cues that such action is welcome. Poorer performers may also simply lack enough commitment to their organization to be influenced by managerial attempts to increase their provision of o

44、bservations and ideas.</p><p>  Additionally, strong performance, where subjectively rated, may indicate better impression management skills and a greater sensitivity to contextual cues as to what behaviors

45、are welcomed or frowned upon by those in power (Wayne & Liden, 1995). This view is consistent with arguments that better performers are more skilled at monitoring the external environment and subsequently adapting th

46、eir behaviors through self-presentation tactics (Snyder & Copeland, 1989). In short, better performers have l</p><p>  Hypothesis 4. The relationships between leaders’ change-oriented behaviors and subor

47、dinates’ improvement-oriented voice is stronger for subordinates with high performance than for subordinates with low performance.</p><p>  To test Hypotheses 1–4, we conducted two studies at “Serve-Co,” a c

48、orporation-owned chain of casual dining restaurants. In Study 1, we tested Hypotheses 1–3 on a sample of crew members (servers, cooks, and hosts/hostesses); in Study 2, we used longitudinal data from shift managers to re

49、plicate the Study 1 findings and to test Hypothesis 4. Both crew members and shift managers interacted regularly with, and were evaluated by, their restaurant’s general manager (GM).</p><p>  Theoretical Imp

50、lications </p><p>  This study extends previous voice research in several ways. First,our results suggest that very specific leader behaviors,rather than generically positive or personalized behaviors, may b

51、e needed to stimulate routine voice from subordinates. In particular, behaviors that </p><p>  indicate openness to change and willingness to act on input from below may be necessary to overcome employee res

52、traint. Conversely, even though we found significant bivariate correlations for transformational leadership in both studies, our results for transformational leadership were less consistent after we took several controls

53、 into account,suggesting that some of the behaviors comprising this construct may not present a clear signal that voice is desired. For example,some transformational le</p><p>  In addition, our findings beg

54、in to demonstrate the differential impact of leader behaviors on voice for different types of employees. Future research might assess whether the context-dependent modulation of voice behavior found for this study’s bett

55、er performers is based in emotional intelligence,as recent research suggests that the abilities to read a supervisor’s emotions and regulate one’s own emotions may lead to higher performance (Law, Wong,& Song,2004).F

56、uture research might also explore t</p><p>  solicitation needed to stimulate useful discretionary contributions from all employees, including poorer performers. Although the failure to secure the input of p

57、oorer performers may seem of minimal consequence, this view ignores the possibilities that(1) current performance problems reflect punishments for speaking up in the past,(2)performance can be improved by stimulating emp

58、loyee involvement, and(3)even poor performers notice problems and opportunities for improvement.</p><p><b>  中文翻譯:</b></p><p>  領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為與員工建言:門真的打開了?</p><p>  在當(dāng)今競(jìng)爭(zhēng)異常激烈的商業(yè)環(huán)境

59、,員工的有意提高組織運(yùn)作的建議和意見對(duì)組織的績(jī)效是至關(guān)重要的。因?yàn)椋缡ゼf(shuō)的,這“根本不可能從頂部去‘理解它'”(1990:4;又見莫里森和米利肯,2000)。例如,埃德蒙森(1999,2003),發(fā)現(xiàn)所有成員愿意提供想法和關(guān)鍵工序的思想特點(diǎn)表示各種類型的成功的團(tuán)隊(duì)學(xué)習(xí)。然而,除了這種“學(xué)習(xí)需要”,許多人沒有在他們認(rèn)為能夠安全發(fā)言的環(huán)境中工作(米利肯,莫里森及休林,2003;賴恩和厄斯特里希,1998)。這顯示了一個(gè)令人不安

60、的事態(tài):建言,我們定義為旨在改善與知覺組織內(nèi)行事的權(quán)力機(jī)構(gòu)和給組織運(yùn)作的人酌情提供信息,即使這些信息可能會(huì)面臨的挑戰(zhàn)和破壞該組織的地位現(xiàn)狀和權(quán)力持有人,但卻是至關(guān)重要的組織福祉,而看到發(fā)言帶來(lái)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)大于其帶來(lái)的福利的員工還不能給予建言。因此,更好地了解說(shuō)出具有潛在價(jià)值的信息的人和贊成或抑制這種行為的組織條件是很重要的。在這項(xiàng)研究中,我們力圖為這種理解作出貢獻(xiàn)。</p><p>  三條研究廣泛的線路已經(jīng)在不同程度

61、解決了這一調(diào)查。迄今為止最系統(tǒng)的研究,一直專注于個(gè)體差異和個(gè)人背景特征與建言的相關(guān)性研究(格蘭特,2003;萊派恩和凡達(dá)因,2001)。在這行的工作規(guī)定或隱含的推理是,有些人只是在關(guān)于建言方面比其他人更有可能“多走一步”。第二條研究線路是在赫希曼的(1970)的開創(chuàng)性確定退出、建言、忠誠(chéng)為雇員面臨一些組織運(yùn)作方面的不滿時(shí)的主要選項(xiàng)的工作的基礎(chǔ)上的,把員工的態(tài)度作為向上建言的主要決定因素(魯斯布爾特,法雷爾,羅杰斯和梅努斯,1988;威西

62、和庫(kù)珀,1989)。最后,第三個(gè)研究流集中于一個(gè)組織的環(huán)境可能會(huì)影響員工的建言意愿這一方面。這種觀點(diǎn)隱含的假設(shè)是,實(shí)際上最積極的或最滿意的員工有可能“疾風(fēng)之語(yǔ)”,甚至不論在他們的獨(dú)有的條件下建言是否安全或值得(頓,阿什福德,奧尼爾,海耶斯和維爾巴,1997;埃德蒙森,2003;。米利肯等,2003)。</p><p>  尋求進(jìn)一步發(fā)展的背景流,我們把重點(diǎn)放在具體領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為在影響員工決定自愿地提供意見或建議來(lái)發(fā)動(dòng)組

63、織改進(jìn)中所扮演的角色。定性研究鑒別了領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為或?qū)傩浴ā捌揭捉恕保桌系龋?003;桑德斯,謝潑德,騎士,與羅斯,1992),“采取行動(dòng)”(埃德蒙森,2003;賴恩和奧斯特賴克,1998 ),和“易接近”(埃德蒙森,1999年),這些行為或?qū)傩钥梢砸龑?dǎo)下屬推斷建言是否安全。然而,有一些對(duì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)能力的某些方面影響建言行為進(jìn)行評(píng)估的定量研究卻產(chǎn)生了不太具有決定性的結(jié)果(例如,阿什福德等,1998)。例如,桑德斯和他的同事(1992年)

64、制定了措施,“管理者作為建言管理者”,發(fā)現(xiàn)在兩個(gè)樣本中建言的可能性呈正相關(guān),但揚(yáng)森,德弗里斯和高家玉</p><p>  (1998年),在控制了個(gè)體差異后發(fā)現(xiàn),管理者作為建言管理者的構(gòu)想與部屬報(bào)告新奇的意見的可能性并沒有顯著相關(guān)??傊?,文獻(xiàn)提出了一個(gè)令人不安的差異:表面效度最高的研究表明,領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為是一個(gè)重要的建言背景先行,但調(diào)查研究卻不能復(fù)制這些調(diào)查結(jié)果。</p><p>  本研究的具

65、體的目的是因此去解決關(guān)于領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為是下屬以改進(jìn)為目標(biāo)的建言的一個(gè)影響因素的一致的結(jié)論。在兩個(gè)階段的實(shí)地考察,我們討論了這些問(wèn)題:“領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為與部屬的建言有關(guān)嗎?”和“如果有關(guān),那是為什么以及什么類型的員工會(huì)受影響?”我們的研究擴(kuò)展了許多方面的文獻(xiàn)。首先,一些用來(lái)描述領(lǐng)導(dǎo)在以往工作中的成果的標(biāo)簽與在廣泛的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)文學(xué)中發(fā)展的構(gòu)念直接對(duì)應(yīng)。我們利用既定的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)方式和執(zhí)政理論,制定具體的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為如何影響員工的建言的預(yù)測(cè)。其次,我們控制了員工的個(gè)性,并且

66、在先前的建言研究中發(fā)現(xiàn)對(duì)員工態(tài)度的解釋很重要,但通常缺乏聚焦于領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的研究。第三,我們聽取了更精確的語(yǔ)音研究(凡戴恩,昂,和博特羅,2003),通過(guò)限制我們的語(yǔ)音結(jié)構(gòu)來(lái)達(dá)到言語(yǔ)行為改善的目標(biāo),并且指向在有關(guān)組織內(nèi)部擁有權(quán)力的某一個(gè)具體目標(biāo)。除了推進(jìn)作為建言預(yù)測(cè)的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為的理解,這項(xiàng)研究還考察了心理安全,作為一項(xiàng)重要的聯(lián)系領(lǐng)導(dǎo)和建言的間接的認(rèn)知,以及處理下屬的績(jī)效水平可能會(huì)如何減弱領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為對(duì)建言的影響。總的來(lái)說(shuō),本研究擴(kuò)展了對(duì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)與建言之間

67、關(guān)系的理解,指出了領(lǐng)導(dǎo)促進(jìn)員工投入的具體方式。</p><p><b>  文獻(xiàn)回顧與假說(shuō)</b></p><p>  建言的概念來(lái)源于員工認(rèn)識(shí)到不滿的來(lái)源或提高自身和/或他們組織的福祉的機(jī)會(huì)觀念(赫希曼,1970)。在這種情況下提出建言可以感覺到很冒險(xiǎn),因?yàn)樗鼈兩婕暗较蚰切┛赡苁侵朴啠?fù)責(zé),或感覺親自參于現(xiàn)狀的人指出改善程序或政策的需要。鑒于此,隨著建言不能被強(qiáng)迫且

68、不容易設(shè)計(jì)成一個(gè)工作的角色內(nèi)要求(凡戴恩和萊派恩,1998年),只有當(dāng)凈感知到的現(xiàn)實(shí)利益大于潛在成本時(shí),最初的終止動(dòng)機(jī)才有可能在行為上表現(xiàn)出來(lái)。感知到的建言的潛在利益包括解決問(wèn)題以及正式(如金錢或晉升)或非正式的(例如,承認(rèn)或狀態(tài))獎(jiǎng)勵(lì),獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)有可能是一個(gè)人的想法得到好評(píng)并且可能得到實(shí)施。相反,潛在的成本包括“生存損失”(例如,降級(jí)或終止)和“關(guān)系損失”(例如,羞辱或社會(huì)地位虧損)(馬斯洛,1943)??傊岢鼋ㄑ缘臎Q定起因于一個(gè)影響預(yù)

69、期般的演算結(jié)果(阿什福德,羅斯巴德,皮德里與達(dá)頓,1998年;米利肯等,2003;威西和庫(kù)珀,1989)。</p><p>  從理論上講,領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為影響建言演算主要有兩個(gè)原因,都與下屬在分層設(shè)置中的資源依賴性有關(guān)(愛默生,1962;菲弗和薩蘭西克,1978)。首先,關(guān)于建言,按照定義,涉及到與感知到有能力將組織注意或資源投入到解決問(wèn)題中的人分享個(gè)人的想法</p><p>  (弗倫奇和雷文

70、,1959年)。因此,領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者本身非常重要的,因?yàn)樗麄兊慕ㄑ赃^(guò)程的目標(biāo)。二,領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者有權(quán)管理獎(jiǎng)懲,這控制著下屬的加薪,晉升和工作任務(wù),這也使領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者的行為作為行為的關(guān)鍵而高度突出(德普雷及費(fèi)斯克,1993)。因此,當(dāng)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)發(fā)出他們對(duì)部屬的建言感興趣并愿意采取行動(dòng)的信號(hào)時(shí),下屬的提出建言的動(dòng)機(jī)就會(huì)維持或加強(qiáng);沒有這樣的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為,員工可能認(rèn)為潛在風(fēng)險(xiǎn)大于知覺到的利益。</p><p><b>  變革導(dǎo)向的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)&l

71、t;/b></p><p>  由于建言涉及不同的做一些事情的建議,領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為的開放性信號(hào)或?qū)Ω淖兊馁p識(shí)應(yīng)該是對(duì)員工愿意說(shuō)出建議的一個(gè)關(guān)鍵的情境影響。定性研究的描述表明了這種行為的重要性。例如,埃德蒙森(2003)報(bào)道,明確地交流改變的一個(gè)理由,解釋別人投入的需要,并將他人的想法付諸行動(dòng)的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人,有盡管說(shuō)出建議有內(nèi)在的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)仍愿意為團(tuán)隊(duì)學(xué)習(xí)做出貢獻(xiàn)的員工。在這里,我們假設(shè)兩種特殊形式的知覺領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為—管理公開型領(lǐng)

72、導(dǎo)和轉(zhuǎn)型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)—是對(duì)持續(xù)改進(jìn)的方向有具體的指示性的,因此,下屬的發(fā)言是安全的信念與他們?cè)敢膺@樣做之間有正相關(guān)。</p><p>  關(guān)于問(wèn)題銷售的研究(就某一具體工作的改進(jìn)或員工待遇主題的建言)已確定管理者的開放性作為一套領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為與下屬的建言動(dòng)機(jī)特別相關(guān)(阿什福德等,1998)。管理的開放性是指下屬認(rèn)為他們的老板聽他們的,對(duì)他們的想法有興趣,對(duì)提出的意見給予公平的考慮,并且至少有時(shí)會(huì)采取行動(dòng)解決提出的問(wèn)題。像這樣的

73、行為對(duì)維持最初的建言動(dòng)機(jī)有著重要的意義(米利肯等,2003)。更重要的是,對(duì)員工的投入公開表示的行為通過(guò)讓員工感知到提出潛在的冒險(xiǎn)的意見不會(huì)有損失,從而可能會(huì)減少領(lǐng)導(dǎo)和下屬之間的權(quán)力差異凸顯的一些想法(埃德蒙森,2003年)。</p><p>  例如豪斯和里索的(1972)高層管理人員的接受觀念,開放,由于與問(wèn)題的銷售有關(guān),已設(shè)想主要是作為一個(gè)高級(jí)經(jīng)理的行為。然而,管理者會(huì)在所有等級(jí)層次上對(duì)一個(gè)更棒、更小的范圍

74、顯示這些行為。因此,這些行為也可能會(huì)影響由低層員工的上行溝通。事實(shí)上,定性研究描述管理的開放性在許多組織層面上對(duì)員工都有強(qiáng)大影響力(例如,瑞安和厄斯特里希,1998;斯普拉格和范尼,1988)。因此,我們預(yù)測(cè):</p><p>  假設(shè)1。領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的被感覺到的、表現(xiàn)出來(lái)的開放與下屬的改善為導(dǎo)向的建言呈正相關(guān)。</p><p>  變革型的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)正是明確的調(diào)整朝向,并更有可能開展、改變(貝司,19

75、85;瓦爾德曼,賈維丹和瓦雷拉,2004)。他們通過(guò)鼓勵(lì)員工超越遵守正式的協(xié)定并成為創(chuàng)新的問(wèn)題解決者來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)變革(巴斯及瑞吉?dú)W,2006)。一些具體的轉(zhuǎn)換行為,包括個(gè)別關(guān)懷和鼓舞人心的動(dòng)機(jī)(巴斯,1985),應(yīng)與建言的數(shù)量聯(lián)系起來(lái)。例如,個(gè)別關(guān)懷,是指每個(gè)員工都有特定的長(zhǎng)處,興趣和改進(jìn)的需要,必須一對(duì)一的照顧到,而不是通過(guò)拘謹(jǐn)?shù)恼呋蚵暶鱽?lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)(巴斯及阿沃利奧,1990)。領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者對(duì)下屬表現(xiàn)出個(gè)別關(guān)懷的方向</p><p

76、>  是鼓勵(lì)雙向溝通以及有效的傾聽(巴斯及瑞吉?dú)W,2006)。此外,領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者用鼓舞人心的激勵(lì)為下屬對(duì)組織的愿景的創(chuàng)作承諾(巴斯,1985)。領(lǐng)導(dǎo)通過(guò)頻繁的將預(yù)想的未來(lái)方向、組織的目標(biāo)以及始終如一的展示集體追求組織目標(biāo)的激情、公開的傳播來(lái)形成這樣的承諾(康格,1989)。</p><p>  這種變革型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為可以增加下屬的能力、承諾以及激勵(lì)自主,并且讓下屬覺得有責(zé)任為組織的未來(lái)作出貢獻(xiàn)(圣吉,1990;韋恩,

77、肖爾與利登,1997)。例如,在可能會(huì)增加不舒服的課題的輔導(dǎo)中減少相關(guān)的恐嚇,如讓他們挑戰(zhàn)現(xiàn)狀。此外,支援性的輔導(dǎo)和遠(yuǎn)景共享可以增加建言的初始動(dòng)機(jī),因?yàn)樗鼈儠?huì)導(dǎo)致下屬接受更多的集體的業(yè)績(jī)成果的責(zé)任(本尼斯和耐納斯,1985)。這些變革型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為可以激勵(lì)部屬相信他們的老板是面向未來(lái),而不是以維持現(xiàn)狀為主。因此,下屬應(yīng)該更愿意說(shuō)出旨在使組織改進(jìn)的意見。因此,我們預(yù)測(cè):</p><p>  假設(shè)2。領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的被感覺到的變革

78、行為與下屬的改善為導(dǎo)向的建言呈正相關(guān)。</p><p><b>  心理安全和建言</b></p><p>  為了與員工在估計(jì)知覺成本之前發(fā)言的論點(diǎn)相一致,心理安全(是在從事危險(xiǎn)行為如建言時(shí)不會(huì)造成人身傷害的信念)已被描述為一個(gè)關(guān)鍵的影響建言的認(rèn)知(阿什福德等,1998;埃德蒙森,1999)。簡(jiǎn)單地說(shuō),員工害怕直言會(huì)帶來(lái)重大的個(gè)人損失(如,有限制的職業(yè)流動(dòng),失去上級(jí)

79、和同行的支持)很可能會(huì)因此選擇“防御性”沉默(凡戴恩等,2003)。因?yàn)檎Z(yǔ)音往往包含對(duì)現(xiàn)狀的隱式或顯式的批評(píng),因?yàn)橄蛏辖ㄑ缘哪繕?biāo)是獲得獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)和制裁的權(quán)力,領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者的行為很可能是下屬用來(lái)評(píng)估未經(jīng)請(qǐng)求的評(píng)論建言對(duì)自己而言是否危險(xiǎn)的明確突出的線索(米利肯等,2003)。畢竟,大多數(shù)員工缺乏勇氣或保證來(lái)挑戰(zhàn)已經(jīng)表示不愿意接受下級(jí)投入的管理者(霍恩斯坦,1986)。因此,當(dāng)管理者經(jīng)常表現(xiàn)出個(gè)人的興趣,仔細(xì)傾聽,并采取行動(dòng),他們向下屬展示,在誠(chéng)實(shí)的溝通

80、中不會(huì)有個(gè)人風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(巴斯及瑞吉?dú)W,2006;埃德蒙森,2003年)。這樣的經(jīng)驗(yàn)可以加強(qiáng)心理安全知覺。</p><p>  因此,我們推測(cè)這種心理安全是調(diào)解領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為提供的外部刺激因素與下屬的決定發(fā)表意見或保持沉默之間關(guān)系的一種信念。這種說(shuō)法是符合波扎克夫和同事(波扎克夫,麥肯齊,穆爾曼與費(fèi)泰爾,1990),對(duì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的信任(與心理安全的定義相似的信任,就像相信一個(gè)人將不會(huì)被另一個(gè)人傷害)調(diào)節(jié)著領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人的變革行為與下屬的規(guī)定

81、的其他(非危險(xiǎn))組織公民行為之間的關(guān)系。具體來(lái)說(shuō),我們預(yù)測(cè):</p><p>  假設(shè)3。心理安全知覺調(diào)節(jié)著以變革為導(dǎo)向的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為和下屬的以改善為導(dǎo)向的建言之間的關(guān)系。</p><p><b>  下屬的績(jī)效</b></p><p>  就像阿什福德和他的同事(例如,阿什福德等,1998)所指出的,下屬的績(jī)效水平可能與他/她建言的意愿有關(guān)。表現(xiàn)

82、較好者可能認(rèn)為他們有更多的信譽(yù),從而更有可能認(rèn)為建言是一種工作職責(zé),而不是一種可選的公民行為。這種與先前研究一致的說(shuō)法表明,具有較高的自尊的員工,往往與績(jī)效有關(guān),更相信自己的能力提供有意義的投入,因此會(huì)更主動(dòng)地發(fā)表意見(布若克呢等,1998)。因此,一個(gè)下屬的績(jī)效水平應(yīng)該與其提出改進(jìn)的想法的頻率呈正相關(guān)。但這并不意味著,績(jī)效良好者會(huì)不顧環(huán)境誘因而比績(jī)效不良者更有可能提出挑戰(zhàn)現(xiàn)狀的建言。也就是說(shuō),績(jī)效良好者的較高的信心可能反映了一種當(dāng)建言

83、出現(xiàn)在這種投入剛好被需要時(shí)的建言成功的能力。相反,績(jī)效不良者可能缺乏在任何情況下提出建言信心和職業(yè)安全感——甚至當(dāng)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人發(fā)出歡迎這種行動(dòng)的暗示時(shí)也沒用???jī)效較差者也可能只是缺乏足夠的組織承諾,這種組織承諾受到經(jīng)理的試圖增加他們的提供意見和想法的規(guī)定的影響。</p><p>  此外,主觀認(rèn)為的良好的績(jī)效,可能表明更好的印象管理技巧和對(duì)環(huán)境暗示,比如哪些是受歡迎的或是對(duì)當(dāng)權(quán)者所不齒的行為有更大的敏感性(韋恩和利登,

84、1995)。這種觀點(diǎn)與良好績(jī)效者能更熟練地監(jiān)聽外環(huán)境,隨后通過(guò)自我表現(xiàn)策略來(lái)調(diào)整自己行為的參數(shù)是一致的(斯奈德和谷輪,1989)??傊?,更好的執(zhí)行者更有可能被評(píng)為表現(xiàn)很好,因?yàn)樗麄兏?xí)慣于接受環(huán)境誘因來(lái)提出建言,更有能力“量體裁衣”并且把他們的上行建言的目標(biāo)建立在這些誘因的基礎(chǔ)上。這一分析表明,當(dāng)他們的老板顯得特別有興趣和關(guān)心下屬并愿意為下屬的建議采取行動(dòng)時(shí),更好的執(zhí)行者應(yīng)該比其他人更有可能提出建言。相反,當(dāng)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的暗示是較少歡迎甚至敵對(duì)

85、時(shí),更好的執(zhí)行者更可能隱瞞自己的意見和想法或改變信息的內(nèi)容(例如,粉飾他們)。因此,我們預(yù)測(cè):</p><p>  假設(shè)4。相對(duì)于低績(jī)效的下屬,高績(jī)效的下屬使領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人的變革為導(dǎo)向的行為和下屬的改善為導(dǎo)向的建言的之間的關(guān)系加強(qiáng)。</p><p>  為了檢驗(yàn)假設(shè)1-4,我們?cè)凇胺?wù)-合作,”一家擁有休閑餐飲餐廳的連鎖公司進(jìn)行了兩項(xiàng)研究。在研究一中,我們用機(jī)上工作人員的樣本(服務(wù)員,廚師,和男主

86、人/女主人)測(cè)試了假說(shuō)1-3;在研究二中,我們用值班經(jīng)理的縱向數(shù)據(jù)來(lái)重復(fù)研究一的結(jié)果并檢驗(yàn)假設(shè)4。機(jī)組工作人員和值班經(jīng)理之間都存在有規(guī)律的相互作用,并由他們餐廳的總經(jīng)理(GM)進(jìn)行了評(píng)價(jià)。</p><p><b>  理論意義</b></p><p>  這項(xiàng)研究在幾個(gè)方面上擴(kuò)展了先前的建言研究。首先,我們的研究結(jié)果表明,非常具體的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為,而不是籠統(tǒng)的積極或個(gè)性化的

87、行為,可能是刺激下屬常規(guī)建言所需要的。特別是表示公開的改變和愿意把下級(jí)的投入付諸行動(dòng)的行為,可能是克服員工的束縛所必需的。反過(guò)來(lái)說(shuō),即使我們?cè)谶@兩項(xiàng)研究中建立了對(duì)變革型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)有意義</p><p>  的雙變量的相關(guān)分析,我們將幾個(gè)控件加以考慮后發(fā)現(xiàn)我們對(duì)變革型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的結(jié)果出現(xiàn)了不一致,這表明一些包含這一構(gòu)念的行為,可能并沒有明確地顯示建言是被期望的這樣一種信號(hào)。例如,一些變革型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為可以被視為既是授權(quán)又是限制(卡

88、克,沙米爾和陳,2003)。此外,一個(gè)有聲的、激勵(lì)性的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者可被視為平等和賦權(quán)(也就是展示社交魅力)或支配的,并且相信他/她自己的想法的正確性(即展示個(gè)性魅力),即其他人不敢提供其自己的建言(豪斯與豪威爾,1992)。因此,在我們的兩項(xiàng)研究中,公開和變革型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為始終與建言呈正相關(guān),但公開的行為清晰地對(duì)建言受到歡迎發(fā)出更強(qiáng)的信號(hào)。</p><p>  我們的關(guān)于心理安全的調(diào)解結(jié)果,是直接對(duì)涉及到以改善為導(dǎo)向的建言

89、來(lái)挑戰(zhàn)現(xiàn)狀的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的表述。雖然重大的研究探討了領(lǐng)導(dǎo)機(jī)構(gòu)對(duì)其他組織公民行為的影響,但建言是獨(dú)一無(wú)二的,因?yàn)樗婕暗綕撛诨驅(qū)嶋H的挑戰(zhàn)現(xiàn)狀及當(dāng)權(quán)者的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。很少有當(dāng)局者可能會(huì)抵制下屬的角色外的“幫助”或“運(yùn)動(dòng)家”行為,但當(dāng)局者有可能不喜歡“自己的”程序或政策被下級(jí)挑戰(zhàn),并且會(huì)把這樣做的員工看做是在反抗(弗雷斯與費(fèi)伊,2001 ;凡戴恩和萊派恩,1998)。正是因?yàn)榻ㄑ员灰暈榉磳?duì)的角色,而不是角色外的行為(斯托及伯特格,1990),這一發(fā)現(xiàn)強(qiáng)調(diào)了領(lǐng)

90、導(dǎo)在建立一個(gè)安全的建言心理環(huán)境中的重要性。也就是說(shuō),領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者的行為是員工評(píng)估有關(guān)潛在成本和建言收益的關(guān)鍵投入,這反過(guò)來(lái)又影響最終的建言或沉默行為(米利肯等,2003;賴恩和奧斯特賴克,1998)。</p><p>  此外,我們的研究結(jié)果開始顯示出領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為對(duì)不同類型的員工的建言有不同的影響。未來(lái)的研究可能評(píng)估這項(xiàng)研究中的表現(xiàn)較佳者的建言行為的語(yǔ)境調(diào)制是否是建立在情緒智力的基礎(chǔ)上的,最近的研究表明,有閱讀上司的情緒和

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