簡(jiǎn)介：9300英文單詞，英文單詞，53萬英文字符，中文萬英文字符，中文16萬字萬字文獻(xiàn)出處文獻(xiàn)出處SMITHITHELAWANDECONOMICSOFMARRIAGECONTRACTSJJOURNALOFECONOMICSURVEYS,2003,172201225THELAWANDECONOMICSOFMARRIAGECONTRACTSIANSMITHABSTRACTGROWTHINPROPERTYOWNERSHIPHASRAISEDTHESTAKESINTHEDISTRIBUTIONOFFINANCIALASSETSONDIVORCEGIVENHIGHRISKSOFMARITALFAILURE,THISHASSTIMULATEDTHEDEMANDFORPRIVATEORDERINGTHROUGHENFORCEABLEMARRIAGECONTRACTSTHISPAPERSURVEYSTHEEXISTINGLAWANDECONOMICSLITERATUREANDLEGALPRACTICETOCONSIDERTHESTATEOFKNOWLEDGEONTHEECONOMICTHEORY,SCOPEANDLIMITSOFWRITTENNUPTIALAGREEMENTSKEYWORDSMARRIAGECONTRACTSPRENUPTIALAGREEMENTSMARITALPROPERTY1INTRODUCTIONWHILETHEREISMUCHSCHOLARLYINVESTIGATIONOFTHEFINANCIALCONSEQUENCESOFMARITALBREAKDOWN,1DISCUSSIONOFTHEPRIVATEREGULATIONOFSUCHOUTCOMESUSINGMARRIAGECONTRACTSISLESSSYSTEMATICTHETOPICOFMARITALCONTRACTINGTOALTERTHEDIVORCEENTITLEMENTSOFTHEPARTIESRECEIVES,FOREXAMPLE,ONLYBRIEFCOMMENTSINTHESTANDARDSURVEYSOFTHEECONOMICSOFTHEFAMILYOFFEREDBYBECKER1991,BERGSTROM19961997,CABRILLO1999,CIGNO1991,ERMISCH1993,GROSSBARDSHECHTMAN1993,POLLAK1985ANDWEISS1997EMPIRICALLY,THEMOSTFREQUENTTYPEOFMARITALCONTRACTINCOMMONLAWJURISDICTIONSISTHEEXPOSTSEPARATIONAGREEMENTDRAFTEDFOLLOWINGMARRIAGEBREAKDOWNSUCHPOSTMARITALSEPARATIONAGREEMENTSARETYPICALLYPREFERREDTOAJUDICIALLYDETERMINEDDIVORCESETTLEMENTBOTHBYDIVORCINGCOUPLESFARMERANDTIEFENTHALER,2001ANDBYCOURTSWHICHRARELYSETASIDEPRIVATELYNEGOTIATEDSOLUTIONSLESSNUMEROUSAREEXANTESEPARATIONAGREEMENTS,COMPRISINGBOTHPRENUPTIALCONTRACTSWRITTENPRIORTOMARRIAGEANDTHOSENEGOTIATEDDURINGACONTINUINGMARRIAGEEXPOSTSEPARATIONAGREEMENTS,SIGNEDATDIVORCE,ARERELATIVELYUNCONTROVERSIALANDHAVELESSANALYTICALLYINTERESTINGCHARACTERISTICSTHANMARITALCONTRACTSNEGOTIATEDEITHERASACONDITIONOFTHEWEDDINGORDURINGANONGOINGMARRIAGETHEDIFFERENCEINTHEORETICALSIGNIFICANCEARISESBECAUSE,INTHECASEOFEXPOSTSEPARATIONAGREEMENTS,EXECUTIONANDENFORCEMENTAREALMOSTCONTEMPORANEOUSWHEREASMARITALCONTRACTSREQUIRECONTINGENTCONTRACTINGOVERAPOSSIBLYDISTANTANDUNCERTAINFUTUREEVENTTHECONSEQUENCEISTHATMARRIAGECONTRACTSINVOLVEISSUESOFRENEGOTIATIONANDSIGNALLING,ASWELLASTHEBARGAININGPROBLEMSTHATALSOARISEWITHPOSTMARITALSEPARATIONAGREEMENTSASCONTRACTINGONSEPARATIONISWELLANALYZEDBYMNOOKINANDKORNHAUSER1979ANDTREBILCOCKANDKEVSHANI1991ITWILLBELARGELYIGNOREDINWHATFOLLOWSCONTRIBUTIONSOUTLININGTHETHEORYANDPRACTICEOFNUPTIALAGREEMENTSDRAWFROMTHELITERATUREONLAWANDECONOMICSANDTHEECONOMICSOFCONTRACTS2MOSTOFTHEDISCUSSIONISRECENT,WITHONLYAFEWPUBLISHEDSTUDIESINENGLISHPRIORTOWEITZMAN1981ASTHEFIELDISRELATIVELYNEW,ANDTHEENFORCEABILITYOFEXANTEMARRIAGECONTRACTSCONTROVERSIALINSOMEJURISDICTIONS,MANYOFTHECONTRIBUTIONSTOTHETOPICHAVEADISTINCTLYNORMATIVEASWELLASANALYTICALFLAVOURWRITERSGENERALLYFAVOURABLETOMARITALCONTRACTSINCLUDEBECKERANDBECKER1997,BIX1998,DNES2000,GROSSBARDSHECHTMANANDLEMENNICIER1999,MARSTON1997,RASMUSENANDSTAKE1998,SCOTTANDSCOTT19981999,TREBILCOCK1999,TREBILCOCKANDKESHVANI1991,WAX1998,WEITZMAN1981ANDYOUNGER19881992SCEPTICSINCLUDEBRINIG2000,BROD1994,COHEN19872002,DIFONZO2000,FRANK1988,MCLELLAN1996,NASHERI1998,NEAVEOWNRELATIONSHIPTERMS,ISTHECOROLLARYOFITSINCREASINGCONCEPTUALIZATIONINTERMSOFRIGHTSTOPROPERTYBELL1997ARGUESFROMANANTHROPOLOGICALPERSPECTIVETHATMARRIAGETRADITIONALLYCONFERREDRIGHTSONAHUSBANDOFSEXUALACCESSTOHISWIFEHOWEVER,INNOVATIONSINFEMALECONTRACEPTIVETECHNOLOGYANDTHELEGALIZATIONOFABORTIONHAVEGIVENGREATERSEXUALANDREPRODUCTIVEAUTONOMYTOWOMENMARRIAGEISNOLONGERDEFINEDSOMUCHINTERMSOFSEXUALRIGHTSBUTRATHERINTERMSOFECONOMICRIGHTSANDCONSEQUENCESITISDISTINGUISHEDFROMNONMARITALCOHABITATIONBYITSIMPLICATIONSFORPROPERTYDIVISION,PENSION,HOUSING,FISCALANDINHERITANCEBENEFITS,ASWELLASBYGREATERENTRYANDEXITCOSTSTHISISTRUEEVENINCOUNTRIESSUCHASSWEDENWHICHSEEKNEUTRALTREATMENTOFDIFFERENTFAMILYFORMSSWEDISHLAWTYPICALLYTREATSNEARLYALLSPOUSALPROPERTYASMARITAL,TOBEPOOLEDANDDIVIDEDEQUALLYONDIVORCE,WHEREASTHATOFCOHABITANTSISTREATEDASSEPARATEPROPERTYBRADLEY,1996INSOFARASTHEINSTITUTIONOFMARRIAGEISCONCEIVEDPRIMARILYINTERMSOFFINANCIALEFFECTS,THISWILLNATURALLYLENDITSELFTOPRIVATECONTRACTINGMOREOVER,MANYLEGALCOMMENTATORSHAVENOTEDARETREATFROMTHEREGULATIONOFMARRIAGEINFAMILYLAW,CREATINGACLIMATEFAVOURABLETOMARITALCONTRACTINGINPARTICULAR,THEFOCUSISSHIFTINGFROMTHELEGALOBLIGATIONSOFPARTNERSTOTHOSEOFPARENTSCARBONE,2000THEMOVEFROMPARTNERSTOPARENTSISEVIDENTINTHEADVENTOFTHECLEANBREAKPHILOSOPHYTHATSEVERSSPOUSALFINANCIALRESPONSIBILITIESINTHEDIVORCESETTLEMENTBUTSTRICTLYENFORCESCONTINUINGCHILDSUPPORTPAYMENTSTHETRENDTOWARDSTHEPRIVATIZATIONOFMARRIAGEISALSOAPPARENTINTHEMODERNEMPHASISONNOFAULTDIVORCE,ANDALTERNATIVENONLITIGIOUSDISPUTERESOLUTIONPROCEDURES,SUCHASMEDIATION,TORESOLVEMARITALCONFLICTSOBSERVINGTHEINCREASINGSELFDETERMINATIONOFOBLIGATIONS,DIFONZO2000POSITSTHATDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIESAREEXPERIENCINGATRANSITIONTOVARIABLEORCUSTOMIZEDMARRIAGEHERALDEDBYLEPACSINFRANCEANDREGISTEREDPARTNERSHIPSINTHENETHERLANDS,SCANDINAVIAANDELSEWHEREMOREGENERALLY,MARRIAGECONTRACTSARECONSISTENTWITHCHANGESINPOLITICALCULTURETHATFAVOURINDIVIDUALAUTONOMYOVERSTATEIMPOSEDSOLUTIONSHOWEVER,THEUSEOFMARITALAGREEMENTSISNOTNEWMARRIAGESETTLE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簡(jiǎn)介：THELAWANDECONOMICSOFMARRIAGECONTRACTSIANSMITHUNIVERSITYOFSTANDREWSABSTRACTGROWTHINPROPERTYOWNERSHIPHASRAISEDTHESTAKESINTHEDISTRIBUTIONOFFINANCIALASSETSONDIVORCEGIVENHIGHRISKSOFMARITALFAILURE,THISHASSTIMULATEDTHEDEMANDFORPRIVATEORDERINGTHROUGHENFORCEABLEMARRIAGECONTRACTSTHISPAPERSURVEYSTHEEXISTINGLAWANDECONOMICSLITERATUREANDLEGALPRACTICETOCONSIDERTHESTATEOFKNOWLEDGEONTHEECONOMICTHEORY,SCOPEANDLIMITSOFWRITTENNUPTIALAGREEMENTSKEYWORDSMARRIAGECONTRACTSPRENUPTIALAGREEMENTSMARITALPROPERTY1INTRODUCTIONWHILETHEREISMUCHSCHOLARLYINVESTIGATIONOFTHEFINANCIALCONSEQUENCESOFMARITALBREAKDOWN,1DISCUSSIONOFTHEPRIVATEREGULATIONOFSUCHOUTCOMESUSINGMARRIAGECONTRACTSISLESSSYSTEMATICTHETOPICOFMARITALCONTRACTINGTOALTERTHEDIVORCEENTITLEMENTSOFTHEPARTIESRECEIVES,FOREXAMPLE,ONLYBRIEFCOMMENTSINTHESTANDARDSURVEYSOFTHEECONOMICSOFTHEFAMILYOFFEREDBYBECKER1991,BERGSTROM19961997,CABRILLO1999,CIGNO1991,ERMISCH1993,GROSSBARDSHECHTMAN1993,POLLAK1985ANDWEISS1997EMPIRICALLY,THEMOSTFREQUENTTYPEOFMARITALCONTRACTINCOMMONLAWJURISDICTIONSISTHEEXPOSTSEPARATIONAGREEMENTDRAFTEDFOLLOWINGMARRIAGEBREAKDOWNSUCHPOSTMARITALSEPARATIONAGREEMENTSARETYPICALLYPREFERREDTOAJUDICIALLYDETERMINEDDIVORCESETTLEMENTBOTHBYDIVORCINGCOUPLESFARMERANDTIEFENTHALER,2001ANDBYCOURTSWHICHRARELYSETASIDEPRIVATELYNEGOTIATEDSOLUTIONSLESSNUMEROUSAREEXANTESEPARATIONAGREEMENTS,COMPRISINGBOTHPRENUPTIALCONTRACTSWRITTENPRIORTOMARRIAGEANDTHOSENEGOTIATEDDURINGACONTINUINGMARRIAGEEXPOSTSEPARATIONAGREEMENTS,SIGNEDATDIVORCE,ARERELATIVELYUNCONTROVERSIALANDHAVELESSANALYTICALLYINTERESTINGCHARACTERISTICSTHANMARITALCONTRACTSNEGOTIATEDEITHERASACONDITIONOFTHEWEDDINGORDURINGANONGOINGMARRIAGETHEDIFFERENCEINTHEORETICALSIGNIFICANCEARISESBECAUSE,INTHECASEOFEXPOSTSEPARATIONAGREEMENTS,EXECUTIONANDENFORCEMENTAREALMOSTCONTEMPORANEOUSWHEREASMARITALCONTRACTSREQUIRECONTINGENTCONTRACTINGOVERAPOSSIBLYDISTANTANDUNCERTAINFUTUREEVENTTHECONSEQUENCEISTHATMARRIAGECONTRACTSINVOLVEISSUESOFRENEGOTIATIONANDSIGNALLING,ASWELLASTHEBARGAININGPROBLEMSTHATALSO09500804/03/020201–25JOURNALOFECONOMICSURVEYSVOL17,NO2BLACKWELLPUBLISHINGLTD2003,9600GARSINGTONROAD,OXFORDOX42DQ,UKAND350MAINST,MALDEN,MA02148,USAEQUITABLEFORAHIGHPROPORTIONOFCASESALEGALREGIMECHARACTERIZEDBYJUDICIALDISCRETION,WHILEACCOMMODATINGMARITALHETEROGENEITYTOSOMEEXTENT,INTRODUCESUNCERTAINTYOVERADJUDICATIONANDMAYPROMOTELITIGATIONONERESPONSETOTHEGREATERVARIETYOFMARITALCIRCUMSTANCES,TOMOREWIDESPREADAWARENESSOFTHEBITTERNESSOFADVERSARIALDIVORCECONFLICTS,ANDTOHIGHERFINANCIALSTAKESONDIVORCEISTHEGROWTHINDEMANDFORPRIVATEORDERINGTHROUGHMARITALCONTRACTSSPECIFYINGPOSTDISSOLUTIONENTITLEMENTSFORPROSPECTIVESPOUSES,THEPRIVATENEGOTIATIONANDINDIVIDUALIZEDTAILORINGOFDIVORCECONSEQUENCESACCORDINGTOCIRCUMSTANCESANDPREFERENCESMAYGENERATEEFFICIENCYGAINSFOREXAMPLE,TOTHEEXTENTTHATRELATIVELYEASYACCESSTOCLEANBREAK,NOFAULTDIVORCEHASATTENUATEDINCENTIVESTOINVESTINMARRIAGE,COUPLESCANPROTECTMARRIAGESPECIFICCAPITALBYCUSTOMIZINGSUPPORTOBLIGATIONSDNES,2000INADDITION,COUPLESMAYVALUETHEFREEDOMPRIVATELYTOORDERTHEIRFINANCIALAFFAIRSRATHERTHANHAVINGJUDICIALSOLUTIONSCOERCIVELYIMPOSEDBYTHESTATE,PERMITTINGAMICABLEDETERMINATIONOFPROPERTYRIGHTSPRIORTOORDURINGMARRIAGERATHERTHANLITIGIOUSLYINDIVORCEPROCEEDINGSGROSSBARDSHECHTMANANDLEMENNICIER,1999INDEED,THEREISSOMEEVIDENCETHATNEGOTIATINGADIVORCESETTLEMENTWITHOUTLEGALINTERVENTIONPROMOTESCOMPLIANCEPETERSETAL,1993ONTHESUPPLYSIDE,ALLEN1990HASARGUEDTHATTHESTATEPERMITSPRIVATEMARITALCONTRACTINGINSTEADOFIMPOSINGITSUNIFORMMARRIAGECONTRACTWHENTHEBENEFITSFROMFLEXIBILITYEXCEEDTHEJUDICIALCOSTSOFUSINGTHIRDPARTYSANCTIONSTOENSUREECONOMICJUSTICECONTEMPORARYMOVESTOWARDSTHECONTRACTUALIZATIONOFMARRIAGE,INWHICHPARTIESDEFINETHEIROWNRELATIONSHIPTERMS,ISTHECOROLLARYOFITSINCREASINGCONCEPTUALIZATIONINTERMSOFRIGHTSTOPROPERTYBELL1997ARGUESFROMANANTHROPOLOGICALPERSPECTIVETHATMARRIAGETRADITIONALLYCONFERREDRIGHTSONAHUSBANDOFSEXUALACCESSTOHISWIFEHOWEVER,INNOVATIONSINFEMALECONTRACEPTIVETECHNOLOGYANDTHELEGALIZATIONOFABORTIONHAVEGIVENGREATERSEXUALANDREPRODUCTIVEAUTONOMYTOWOMENMARRIAGEISNOLONGERDEFINEDSOMUCHINTERMSOFSEXUALRIGHTSBUTRATHERINTERMSOFECONOMICRIGHTSANDCONSEQUENCESITISDISTINGUISHEDFROMNONMARITALCOHABITATIONBYITSIMPLICATIONSFORPROPERTYDIVISION,PENSION,HOUSING,FISCALANDINHERITANCEBENEFITS,ASWELLASBYGREATERENTRYANDEXITCOSTSTHISISTRUEEVENINCOUNTRIESSUCHASSWEDENWHICHSEEKNEUTRALTREATMENTOFDIFFERENTFAMILYFORMSSWEDISHLAWTYPICALLYTREATSNEARLYALLSPOUSALPROPERTYASMARITAL,TOBEPOOLEDANDDIVIDEDEQUALLYONDIVORCE,WHEREASTHATOFCOHABITANTSISTREATEDASSEPARATEPROPERTYBRADLEY,1996INSOFARASTHEINSTITUTIONOFMARRIAGEISCONCEIVEDPRIMARILYINTERMSOFFINANCIALEFFECTS,THISWILLNATURALLYLENDITSELFTOPRIVATECONTRACTINGMOREOVER,MANYLEGALCOMMENTATORSHAVENOTEDARETREATFROMTHEREGULATIONOFMARRIAGEINFAMILYLAW,CREATINGACLIMATEFAVOURABLETOMARITALCONTRACTINGINPARTICULAR,THEFOCUSISSHIFTINGFROMTHELEGALOBLIGATIONSOFPARTNERSTOTHOSEOFPARENTSCARBONE,2000THEMOVEFROMPARTNERSTOPARENTSISEVIDENTINTHEADVENTOFTHECLEANBREAKPHILOSOPHYTHATSEVERSSPOUSALFINANCIALRESPONSIBILITIESINTHEDIVORCESETTLEMENTBUTSTRICTLYENFORCESCONTINUINGCHILDSUPPORTPAYMENTSTHETR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簡(jiǎn)介：REGIONALECONOMICSANEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHYPERSPECTIVEKRISTIANBEHRENSA,JACQUESFRAN?OISTHISSEA,B,C,?ACORE,UNIVERSITéCATHOLIQUEDELOUVAIN,BELGIUMBCERAS,ECOLENATIONALEDESPONTSETCHAUSSéES,FRANCECCEPR,UNITEDKINGDOMRECEIVED5AUGUST2006ACCEPTED19OCTOBER2006AVAILABLEONLINE12APRIL2007ABSTRACTWESHOWTHATTHECONCEPTSANDTOOLSDEVELOPEDINNEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHYMAYBEUSEDTOREVISITSEVERALPROBLEMSINREGIONALECONOMICSINPARTICULAR,WEWANTTOSTRESSTHEFOLLOWINGTWOPOINTSIWHATDOWEMEANBYAREGIONANDIIWHATKINDOFINTERACTIONSBETWEENREGIONSDOWEWANTTOSTUDYANDHOWTOMODELTHEMWECONCLUDEBYDISCUSSINGAFEWOPENPROBLEMSTHATSHOULDBEEXPLOREDINMOREDETAILFORREGIONALECONOMICSTOBECOMEARICHERBODYOFKNOWLEDGE?2007ELSEVIERBVALLRIGHTSRESERVEDJELCLASSIFICATIONR1KEYWORDSREGIONSREGIONALECONOMICSNEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHY1INTRODUCTIONTHISJOURNALHASBEENLAUNCHEDIN1972UNDERTHETITLEREGIONALANDURBANECONOMICS,WHICHISALMOSTTHENAMEOFTHEJELCLASSIFICATIONENTRYRTHEFIRSTPOINTWEWISHTOMAKEISTHAT,BYTHETIMETHISJOURNALWASLAUNCHED,URBANECONOMICSWASALREADYAWELLESTABLISHEDFIELDDRAWINGONNEWCONCEPTSANDTOOLSBYCONTRAST,THESCIENTIFICSTATUSOFREGIONALECONOMICSWASLESSCLEARINREGIONALSCIENCEANDURBANECONOMICS372007457–465WWWELSEVIERCOM/LOCATE/REGECWETHANKAREFEREE,RICHARDARNOTT,WILFRIEDKOCHANDGIORDANOMIONFORHELPFULCOMMENTSANDSUGGESTIONSKRISTIANBEHRENSGRATEFULLYACKNOWLEDGESFINANCIALSUPPORTFROMTHEEUROPEANCOMMISSIONUNDERTHEMARIECURIEFELLOWSHIPMEIFCT2005024266?CORRESPONDINGAUTHORCERAS,ECOLENATIONALEDESPONTSETCHAUSSéES,FRANCEEMAILADDRESSESBEHRENSCOREUCLACBEKBEHRENS,THISSECOREUCLACBEJFTHISSE01660462/SEEFRONTMATTER?2007ELSEVIERBVALLRIGHTSRESERVEDDOI101016/JREGSCIURBECO200610001MIND,AWELLKNOWNRESULTINSETTHEORYISTHATTHEREISAONETOONECORRESPONDENCEBETWEENTHEFAMILYOFPARTITIONSINASETANDTHEFAMILYOFEQUIVALENCERELATIONSOFTHESAMESETHALMOS,1965RECALLTHATANEQUIVALENCERELATIONINASETISAREFLEXIVE,SYMMETRICANDTRANSITIVERELATIONINTUITIVELY,ONEMAYTHINKOFANEQUIVALENCERELATIONASAGENERALIZATIONOFTHECONCEPTOFEQUALITYTOTHATOFSIMILARITYIANOBJECTISALWAYSSIMILARTOITSELFREFLEXIVITYIIIFONEOBJECTISSIMILARTOANOTHER,THELATTERISSIMILARTOTHEFORMERSYMMETRYANDIIITWOOBJECTSSIMILARTOATHIRDONEARETHEMSELVESSIMILARTRANSITIVITYACCORDINGLY,USINGAPARTICULARREGIONALSYSTEMAMOUNTSTOWORKINGWITHASPECIALEQUIVALENCERELATIONDEFINEDONTHESPACEOFREFERENCETHISRESULTHASTWOIMPORTANTIMPLICATIONSIANYPLACEBELONGSTOASINGLEREGIONANDIITWOPLACESBELONGINGTOTHESAMEREGIONARECONSIDEREDASBEINGIDENTICALFROMTHESTANDPOINTOFTHEEQUIVALENCERELATION,WHEREASTWOPLACESBELONGINGTOTWODISTINCTREGIONSARENOTITISNOWEASYTOUNDERSTANDWHYTHEREISNOGENERALAGREEMENTONWHATAREGIONSHOULDBETHENUMBEROFEQUIVALENCERELATIONSTHATCANBEDEFINEDINASPACEIS“HUGE”THUS,DEPENDINGONTHEPOINTOFVIEWSELECTEDBYTHEANALYST,THEREGIONALSYSTEM,WHENCETHESHAPEANDNUMBEROFREGIONS,MAYVARYCONSEQUENTLY,AGIVENAREACANNOTBECONSIDEREDASAREGIONPERSEWHETHERORNOTITISPARTOFAREGIONALSYSTEMULTIMATELYDEPENDSONTHEEQUIVALENCERELATIONTHATISBEINGUSEDTHISDIFFICULTYSHOULDNOTCOMEASASURPRISEASDEFININGAREGIONALSYSTEMBEARSSOMERESEMBLANCEWITHTHEPROBLEMOFAGGREGATIONINECONOMICTHEORYINTHISRESPECT,ITISWELLKNOWNHOWPOORLYREPRESENTATIVETHESOCALLED“REPRESENTATIVECONSUMER”MAYBEKIRMAN,1992LIKEWISE,THEWORD“INDUSTRY”ISSTILLINSEARCHOFAWELLDEFINEDTHEORETICALMEANINGTRIFFIN,1940GROUPINGLOCATIONSWITHINTHESAMESPATIALENTITY,CALLEDAREGION,GIVESRISETOSIMILARDIFFICULTIESITIS,THEREFORE,PROBABLYHOPELESSTOGIVEACLEARANDPRECISEANSWERTOOURFIRSTQUESTION,WHICHISESSENTIALLYANEMPIRICALONEWHENWETALKABOUTAREGION,WEMUSTBEHAPPYWITHTHESAMETHEORETICALVAGUENESSTHATWEENCOUNTERWHENUSINGTHECONCEPTOFINDUSTRYNOTETHATBOTHINVOLVESOME“INTERMEDIATE”LEVELOFAGGREGATIONBETWEENTHEMACROANDTHEMICROITSHOULDBECLEARFROMTHEFOREGOINGDISCUSSIONTHATTHEMAINCHALLENGEINDEFININGAREGIONALSYSTEMLIESMOREINTHEEMPIRICALAPPLICATIONONEHASINMINDFROMAPURELYEMPIRICALPOINTOFVIEW,THECONCEPTOFREGIONONERETAINSISOFTENINTRINSICALLYLINKEDTOTHEAVAILABILITYOFDATAHENCE,THEQUESTIONOFTHESPATIALSCALEOFANALYSIS,THOUGHALREADYPROBLEMATICINTHEORY,BECOMESEVENMOREDRAMATICINAPPLIEDRESEARCHHOWEVER,SUCHADIFFICULTYDOESNOTDISPENSETHEANALYSTFROMSEEKINGMEANINGFULEMPIRICALSOLUTIONSSEE,EGMAGRINI,2004MCMILLENANDSMITH,2003ONTHEONEHAND,THEQUESTIONOFTHESIZEOFREGIONSNOLONGERMATTERSBECAUSEITISOFTENDICTATEDBYADMINISTRATIVECLASSIFICATIONSEG,THENUTSREGIONALCLASSIFICATIONOFTHEEUONTHEOTHERHAND,ONEISTEMPTEDTOTWISTTHEORYSOTHATITFITSINTOTHEAVAILABLESTATISTICALCLASSIFICATIONSONEADDITIONALPROBLEMISTHAT,DUETOTHENATUREOFTHEDATAAVAILABLE,SPACEMUSTOFTENBEREPRESENTEDBYADISCRETESETOFPOINTSYET,WHENTHEREARETOOMANYPOINTS,AGGREGATIONBECOMESNECESSARYANDGIVESRISETOANOTHERPROBLEM,KNOWNASTHEMAUPMOVABLEAREALUNITPROBLEM3SOMENEWTECHNIQUESSHOULDALLEVIATETHEMAUPPROBLEMINPARTICULAR,THEUSEOFGEOGRAPHICALINFORMATIONSYSTEMSANDTHEINCREASINGAVAILABILITYOFMICROSPATIALDATASHOULDALLOWFORLESSRELIANCEONARBITRARILYDETERMINEDREGIONALBOUNDARIES43ECONOMISTSANDGEOGRAPHERSDONOTSEEMTOBEAWARETHATMATHEMATICIANSHAVEEXTENSIVELYSTUDIEDTHEPOSSIBLEERRORSTHATMAYEMERGEFROMTHEAGGREGATIONOFDATAINTHISPERSPECTIVE,FRANCISETAL2007CONSIDERANDCOMPAREVARIOUSAGGREGATIONERRORMEASURES,IDENTIFYSOMEEFFECTIVEANDSOMEINEFFECTIVEAGGREGATIONERRORMEASURES,ANDDISCUSSSOMEOPENRESEARCHAREAS4FOREXAMPLE,DURANTONANDOVERMAN2005STARTFROMACONTINUOUSSPACEAPPROACHTODETERMINETHEDEGREEOFSPATIALCONCENTRATIONOFVARIOUSINDUSTRIALSECTORS,WHEREASMORIETAL2005PROPOSEANINDEXOFINDUSTRIALLOCATIONTHATCANBEDECOMPOSEDINTOCOMPONENTSREPRESENTINGLOCALIZATIONATVARIOUSLEVELSOFSPATIALAGGREGATION459KBEHRENS,JFTHISSE/REGIONALSCIENCEANDURBANECONOMICS372007457–465

簡(jiǎn)介：3700英文單詞，英文單詞，2萬英文字符，中文萬英文字符，中文6400字文獻(xiàn)出處文獻(xiàn)出處BEHRENSK,THISSEJFREGIONALECONOMICSANEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHYPERSPECTIVEJREGIONALSCIENCEANDURBANECONOMICS,2007,374457465REGIONALECONOMICSANEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHYPERSPECTIVEKRISTIANBEHRENS,JACQUESFRAN?OISTHISSEABSTRACTWESHOWTHATTHECONCEPTSANDTOOLSDEVELOPEDINNEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHYMAYBEUSEDTOREVISITSEVERALPROBLEMSINREGIONALECONOMICSINPARTICULAR,WEWANTTOSTRESSTHEFOLLOWINGTWOPOINTSIWHATDOWEMEANBYAREGIONANDIIWHATKINDOFINTERACTIONSBETWEENREGIONSDOWEWANTTOSTUDYANDHOWTOMODELTHEMWECONCLUDEBYDISCUSSINGAFEWOPENPROBLEMSTHATSHOULDBEEXPLOREDINMOREDETAILFORREGIONALECONOMICSTOBECOMEARICHERBODYOFKNOWLEDGEKEYWORDSREGIONSREGIONALECONOMICSNEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHY1INTRODUCTIONTHISJOURNALHASBEENLAUNCHEDIN1972UNDERTHETITLEREGIONALANDURBANECONOMICS,WHICHISALMOSTTHENAMEOFTHEJELCLASSIFICATIONENTRYRTHEFIRSTPOINTWEWISHTOMAKEISTHAT,BYTHETIMETHISJOURNALWASLAUNCHED,URBANECONOMICSWASALREADYAWELLESTABLISHEDFIELDDRAWINGONNEWCONCEPTSANDTOOLSBYCONTRAST,THESCIENTIFICSTATUSOFREGIONALECONOMICSWASLESSCLEARINTHATREGIONALCONCEPTS,MODELSANDTECHNIQUESWERETOOOFTENAMEREEXTENSIONOFTHOSEUSEDATTHENATIONALLEVEL,WITHANADDITIONALINDEXIDENTIFYINGTHEDIFFERENTREGIONSSEE,EG,INTERREGIONALINPUT–OUTPUTMATRICESORTHEHARROD–DOMARMODELOFREGIONALGROWTH1THESAMUELSONIANEMPHASISPUTONTRADETHEORYALSOACTEDASANIMPEDIMENTTOTHEFURTHERDEVELOPMENTOFREGIONALECONOMICS,THETRADEOFGOODSBEINGVIEWEDASASUBSTITUTETOTHEMOBILITYOFFACTORSTODAY,THANKSTOTHESURGEOFNEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHYINSHORT,NEG,ITISTIMETORETHINKREGIONALECONOMICSTHISISWHATWEWISHTODOINTHISNOTEITISWORTHSTRESSINGFROMTHEOUTSETTHAT,INORDERTOTALKEVENHALFWAYSENSIBLYABOUTREGIONALECONOMICS,ITISNECESSARYTOTACKLETHEFOLLOWINGTWOQUESTIONSIWHATDOWEMEANBYAREGIONANDIIWHATKINDOFINTERACTIONSBETWEENREGIONSDOWEWANTTOSTUDYANDHOWTOMODELTHEMREGARDINGTHEFIRSTQUESTION,WEFINDITCRUCIALTODEVELOPABETTERUNDERSTANDINGOFHOWTHESPATIALSCALEOFTHEANALYSISMATTERSFORTHEECONOMICRESULTSTOOOFTEN,ECONOMISTSUSEINTERCHANGEABLYDIFFERENT,YETEQUALLYUNCLEAR,WORDSSUCHASLOCATIONS,REGIONSORPLACESWITHOUTBEINGAWARETHATTHEYOFTENCORRESPONDTODIFFERENTSPATIALUNITSINDOINGSO,THEYRUNTHERISKOFDRAWINGIMPLICATIONSTHATAREVALIDATACERTAINLEVELOFSPATIALAGGREGATIONBUTNOTATANOTHER2FURTHERMORE,USINGVAGUEDEFINITIONSOFTHESPATIALUNITOFANALYSISREDUCESTHESCIENTIFICCONTENTSOFTHETHEORYINTHEPOPPERIANSENSE,ASTHEEMPIRICALRESULTSCANALWAYSBECONTESTEDINLIGHTOFTHETHEORYONTHESOLEBASISTHATVARIABLESARENOTMEASUREDATTHEAPPROPRIATESPATIALSCALEASTOTHESECONDQUESTION,REGARDLESSOFWHATISMEANTBYAREGION,THECONCEPTISUSEFULIFANDONLYIFAREGIONISPARTOFABROADERNETWORKTHROUGHWHICHVARIOUSTYPESOFINTERACTIONSOCCURWITHOUTTAKINGTHISASPECTINTOACCOUNT,ONEMAYWONDERWHATTHEDIFFERENCEBETWEENREGIONALECONOMICSANDTHEMACROECONOMICSOFACLOSEDECONOMYWOULDBEWHENTHEREISASINGLEREGION,THEECONOMYISASPATIALANDTHEREISNOTHINGINTERESTINGTOBESAIDINTERMSOFSPATIALANALYSISHENCE,ANYMEANINGFULDISCUSSIONOFREGIONALISSUESREQUIRESATLEASTTWOREGIONSINWHICHECONOMICDECISIONSAREMADEFURTHERMORE,IFWEDONOTWANTTHEANALYSISTOBECONFINEDTOTRADETHEORY,WEMUSTALSOACCOUNTEXPLICITLYFORTHEMOBILITYOFAGENTS–FIRMSAND/ORCONSUMERS–ASEVENMOREDRAMATICINAPPLIEDRESEARCHHOWEVER,SUCHADIFFICULTYDOESNOTDISPENSETHEANALYSTFROMSEEKINGMEANINGFULEMPIRICALSOLUTIONSSEE,EGMAGRINI,2004MCMILLENANDSMITH,2003ONTHEONEHAND,THEQUESTIONOFTHESIZEOFREGIONSNOLONGERMATTERSBECAUSEITISOFTENDICTATEDBYADMINISTRATIVECLASSIFICATIONSEG,THENUTSREGIONALCLASSIFICATIONOFTHEEUONTHEOTHERHAND,ONEISTEMPTEDTOTWISTTHEORYSOTHATITFITSINTOTHEAVAILABLESTATISTICALCLASSIFICATIONSONEADDITIONALPROBLEMISTHAT,DUETOTHENATUREOFTHEDATAAVAILABLE,SPACEMUSTOFTENBEREPRESENTEDBYADISCRETESETOFPOINTSYET,WHENTHEREARETOOMANYPOINTS,AGGREGATIONBECOMESNECESSARYANDGIVESRISETOANOTHERPROBLEM,KNOWNASTHEMAUPMOVABLEAREALUNITPROBLEM3SOMENEWTECHNIQUESSHOULDALLEVIATETHEMAUPPROBLEMINPARTICULAR,THEUSEOFGEOGRAPHICALINFORMATIONSYSTEMSANDTHEINCREASINGAVAILABILITYOFMICROSPATIALDATASHOULDALLOWFORLESSRELIANCEONARBITRARILYDETERMINEDREGIONALBOUNDARIES3THERELATIONSHIPBETWEENREGIONALECONOMICSANDNEGTHEIDEAOFSPATIALINTERACTIONISCENTRALTOREGIONALECONOMICSBROADLYDEFINED,SPATIALINTERACTIONREFERSTOAWIDEARRAYOFFLOWSSUBJECTTOVARIOUSTYPESOFSPATIALFRICTIONS,SUCHASTRADEDGOODS,MIGRATIONS,CAPITALMOVEMENTS,INTERREGIONALGRANTS,REMITTANCES,ANDTHEINTERREGIONALTRANSMISSIONOFKNOWLEDGEANDBUSINESSCYCLEEFFECTSSOFAR,THEBULKOFNEGHASBEENRESTRICTEDTOTHEMOVEMENTSOFGOODSANDOFSOMEAGENTSONLYASARGUEDINTHEFOREGOINGSECTION,DEFININGCLEARLYANDDELINEATINGPRECISELYAREGIONAPPEARSTOBEADIFFICULT,NOTTOSAYIMPOSSIBLE,TASKKEEPINGTHISINMIND,WEASSUMEFROMNOWONTHATREGIONSMAYBEVIEWEDASUNITSWHEREECONOMICACTIVITYTAKESPLACEINLIGHTOFTHISVAGUEDEFINITION,ITBECOMESCRUCIALFORTHEANALYSISTOACCOUNTFORTHEFACTTHATWHERETHINGSHAPPENISENDOGENOUSLYDETERMINEDINAREGIONALSYSTEMINTHISRESPECT,TRADITIONALREGIONALECONOMICSOFTENFAILSTOGRASPSUCHANISSUEBYTAKINGTHELOCATIONOFPRODUCTIONFACTORSASGIVEN,VERYMUCHASINTRADETHEORYHOWCANORSHOULDAREGIONALSYSTEMBEFORMALLYREPRESENTEDISSTILLAMATTEROFDEBATEFIRSTLY,ONEMAYCONSIDERTHATTHEREISADISCRETESETOFREGIONSALTERNATIVELY,ONEMAYASSUMETHATTHEREISACONTINUUMOFREGIONSALTHOUG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簡(jiǎn)介：BEHAVIORALECONOMICSANDMACROECONOMICMODELSJOHNCDRISCOLLA,STEINARHOLDENB,?AFEDERALRESERVEBOARD,20THANDCONSTITUTIONAVENW,WASHINGTON,DC20551,USABDEPARTMENTOFECONOMICS,UNIVERSITYOFOSLO,BOX1095,BLINDERN,0317OSLO,NORWAYARTICLEINFOARTICLEHISTORYRECEIVED17SEPTEMBER2012ACCEPTED23MAY2014AVAILABLEONLINE18JUNE2014JELCLASSIFICATIONE2E3D8KEYWORDSBEHAVIORALMACROECONOMICSNEWKEYNESIANMODELABSTRACTOVERTHEPAST20YEARS,MACROECONOMISTSHAVEINCORPORATEDMOREANDMORERESULTSFROMBEHAVIORALECONOMICSINTOTHEIRMODELSWEARGUETHATDOINGSOHASHELPEDFIXEDDEFICIENCIESWITHSTANDARDAPPROACHESTOMODELINGTHEECONOMYFOREXAMPLE,THECOUNTERFACTUALABSENCEOFINERTIAINTHESTANDARDNEWKEYNESIANMODELOFECONOMICFLUCTUATIONSWESURVEYEFFORTSTOUSEBEHAVIORALECONOMICSTOIMPROVESOMEOFTHEUNDERPINNINGSOFTHENEWKEYNESIANMODELSPECIFICALLY,CONSUMPTION,THEFORMATIONOFEXPECTATIONSANDDETERMINATIONOFWAGESANDEMPLOYMENTTHATUNDERLIEAGGREGATESUPPLY,ANDTHEPOSSIBILITYOFMULTIPLEEQUILIBRIAANDASSETPRICEBUBBLESWEALSODISCUSSMOREBROADLYTHEADVANTAGESANDDISADVANTAGESOFUSINGBEHAVIORALECONOMICSFEATURESINMACROECONOMICMODELS?2014ELSEVIERINCALLRIGHTSRESERVED1INTRODUCTIONOVERTHEPAST20YEARS,RESEARCHERSHAVEINCORPORATEDANINCREASINGNUMBEROFRESULTSFROMBEHAVIORALECONOMICSINTOMACROECONOMICMODELSTHEREARETWOMAINREASONSFORTHISCHANGEFIRST,ITHASBECOMECLEARTOMACROECONOMISTSTHATMODELSBASEDONASSUMPTIONSOFOPTIMIZINGBEHAVIORINMANYCASESHAVEDIFFICULTYACCOUNTINGFORKEYREALWORLDOBSERVATIONSHENCERESEARCHERSHAVEUSEDBEHAVIORALECONOMICSASSUMPTIONSWITHTHEAIMOFMAKINGTHEIRMODELPREDICTIONSBETTERFITTHEDATAEARLYATTEMPTSTODOTHISWERECRITICIZEDASBEINGADHOCTHEFORCEOFTHISCRITICISMHASBEENREDUCEDBYTHESECONDREASONFORINCORPORATINGBEHAVIORALECONOMICSRESULTSINTOMACROECONOMICSCOGNITIVEPSYCHOLOGISTSANDEXPERIMENTALECONOMISTSHAVEDOCUMENTEDANUMBEROFSYSTEMATICDEVIATIONSBETWEENTHEDECISIONSOFHUMANBEINGSANDTHOSEOFTHE‘‘ECONOMICMAN’’THEECONOMICSPROFESSIONHASWIDELY,THOUGHBYNOMEANSUNIVERSALLY,ACKNOWLEDGEDTHEEMPIRICALSUPPORTFORPUZZLESTHATCANBEEXPLAINEDBYBEHAVIORALFEATURESMOREOVER,BEHAVIORALFEATURESHAVEBEENINTRODUCEDINMANYPARTSOFMACROECONOMICSWHEREHAVETHESEDEVELOPMENTLEDUSWHICHASSUMPTIONSSHOULDONENOWMAKEWHENANALYZINGMACROECONOMICQUESTIONSTHEAIMOFTHISPAPERISTOPROVIDEASELECTIVESURVEYOFTHEIMPLICATIONSOFINSIGHTSFROMBEHAVIORALECONOMICSFORMACROECONOMICMODELSWEARGUETHATTHEINSIGHTSFROMBEHAVIORALECONOMICSHAVELEDTOIMPORTANTPROGRESSINOURUNDERSTANDINGOFMACROECONOMICPHENOMENABYALLOWINGUSTOEXPLAINMOREASPECTSOFREALWORLDBEHAVIORTHANWECOULDWITHTHEMORERESTRICTIVETHEORETICALFRAMEWORKTHATMOSTECONOMISTSHAVEBEENUSINGSOMEBEHAVIORALASSUMPTIONSTHATHAVEALREADYBEENIMPLEMENTEDINMACROECONOMICMODELS,SUCHASFAIRNESSCONSIDERATIONS,SEEMESPECIALLYPROMISINGTOUSINOTHERCASES,WESUSHTTP//DXDOIORG/101016/JJMACRO20140500401640704/?2014ELSEVIERINCALLRIGHTSRESERVED?CORRESPONDINGAUTHORTEL4722855156FAX4722855035EMAILADDRESSESJOHNCDRISCOLLFRBGOVJCDRISCOLL,STEINARHOLDENECONUIONOSHOLDENJOURNALOFMACROECONOMICS412014133–147CONTENTSLISTSAVAILABLEATSCIENCEDIRECTJOURNALOFMACROECONOMICSJOURNALHOMEPAGEWWWELSEVIERCOM/LOCATE/JMACROMONETARYPOLICY,ANDTHEASCURVE,RESPECTIVELY3THEMODELHASASTEADYSTATEOUTPUTGAPANDINFLATIONRATEOFZERO,ANDREALINTERESTRATEEQUALTOTHEWICKSELLIANLEVELINTHESHORTRUN,THEMODELCANBEUSEDTOTRACETHEEFFECTSOFSHOCKSONTHEOUTPUTGAP,INFLATION,ANDREALANDNOMINALINTERESTRATESWHILETHEMODELHASBEENSUCCESSFULINEXPLAININGBROADFEATURESOFTHERESPONSEOFREALVARIABLESTOMONETARYPOLICY,ITALSOHASANUMBEROFDEFICIENCIESONEKEYPROBLEMISTHATTHEMODELDISPLAYSALACKOFINERTIASHOCKSHAVEIMMEDIATEEFFECTS,WHICHDISSIPATEQUICKLYTOSEETHIS,NOTETHATASHOCKINPERIODTWILLONLYHAVEEFFECTSINTHATPERIODINSUBSEQUENTPERIODS,THELEVELSOFTHEENDOGENOUSVARIABLESONLYDEPENDONEACHOTHER,CURRENTSHOCKS,ANDEXPECTEDFUTURESHOCKSTHISCOMPLETELACKOFPERSISTENCEARISESFROMTHEABSENCEOFLAGGEDINFLATIONOROUTPUTGAPTERMSINTHEISORASEQUATIONSEITHERDIRECTLY,ORINDIRECTLYTHROUGHEXPECTATIONSWHICHMAYDEPENDONTHEMTHISPREDICTIONISSTRONGLYCONTRARYTOEMPIRICALEVIDENCETHAT,FOREXAMPLE,THEREALEFFECTSOFMONETARYPOLICYSHOCKSAREBOTHDELAYEDANDLONGLASTINGASECONDPROBLEM,NOTEDBYBALL1994ANDMANKIW2001,ISTHATTHEAGGREGATESUPPLYSCHEDULEIMPLIESTHATINFLATIONISEXPECTEDTOFALLINABOOM–ACCORDINGTO3,WHENTHEOUTPUTGAPYT0,PTETPTT1THISFEATUREISINCONSISTENTWITHEVIDENCESUPPORTINGTHENAIRU,THATINFLATIONINCREASESWHENOUTPUTISHIGHRELATIVETOTHENATURALRATEBALL1994LOOKSATTHISISSUEFROMTHEPERSPECTIVEOFCREDIBILITYOFTHECENTRALBANKHESHOWSTHATTHENEWKEYNESIANMODELSIMPLIESTHATCREDIBLEDISINFLATIONSSHOULDBEACCOMPANIEDBYEXPANSIONS,BUTPROVIDESEVIDENCETHATACTUALDISINFLATIONSHAVEBEENASSOCIATEDWITHRECESSIONSTHESEPROBLEMSHAVELEDTHOSEWHOWISHTOUSESUCHMODELSWITHANUNAPPEALINGCHOICEUSETHISMODELWITHTHEORETICALSUPPORTBUTEMPIRICALDEFICIENCIES,ORALTERTHEMODELSOTHATITBETTERFITSTHEDATASOMERESEARCHERSHAVETAKENTHELATTERCOURSEEGRUDEBUSCH2002APREFERABLESOLUTIONWOULDBETOFINDMODELSWITHMICROECONOMICSUPPORTWHICHFOLLOWTHEMACROECONOMICDATAFUHRERANDMOORE1995SUGGESTEDAMODELWHEREAGENTSCAREABOUTRELATIVEREALWAGESFORACRITIQUE,SEEHOLDENANDDRISCOLL,2003AMORECOMMONFORMULATIONISAHYBRIDMODEL,WHERESOMEAGENTSAREFORWARDLOOKINGANDOTHERAGENTSAREBACKWARDLOOKINGEGGALIANDGERTLER,199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簡(jiǎn)介：中文中文18500字出處出處DRISCOLLJC,HOLDENSBEHAVIORALECONOMICSANDMACROECONOMICMODELSJJOURNALOFMACROECONOMICS,2014,41133147行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)和宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)模型行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)和宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)模型過去20年，宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家越來越多地將行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的結(jié)論加入他們的模型中，這樣做有助于彌補(bǔ)利用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)方法模擬經(jīng)濟(jì)而造成的缺陷，例如模擬經(jīng)濟(jì)動(dòng)蕩的新凱恩斯模型缺少慣性。我們努力利用行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)來改善一些新凱恩斯模型的基礎(chǔ)內(nèi)容，特別是消費(fèi)、總供給的基礎(chǔ)期望的形成和工資與就業(yè)的決定因素、多重均衡和資產(chǎn)價(jià)格泡沫的可能性。我們也廣泛討論了將行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的特征引入宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)模型所造成的利害。1介紹介紹過去20年，宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家越來越多地將行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的特征引入宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)的模型中。原因有兩點(diǎn)。首先，宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)者意識(shí)到，基于最優(yōu)行為假定的模型在許多方面都難以解釋關(guān)鍵的實(shí)際現(xiàn)狀。因而，研究者利用行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的假定來使他們的模型預(yù)測(cè)更加貼近于實(shí)際數(shù)據(jù)。剛開始這樣的嘗試被批評(píng)為很另類，而這些批評(píng)的壓力因?yàn)榈诙€(gè)原因的出現(xiàn)而減少了。第二個(gè)原因是認(rèn)知心理學(xué)家和實(shí)驗(yàn)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家證實(shí)了現(xiàn)實(shí)中人們的決定與那些“經(jīng)“經(jīng)濟(jì)人濟(jì)人”存在許多偏差。很多經(jīng)濟(jì)難題能夠被行為特征解釋，這一事實(shí)的實(shí)證支持已經(jīng)得到經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)界的廣泛認(rèn)可，當(dāng)然并沒得到全部認(rèn)可。而且，行為特征已經(jīng)被引入到宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的許多方面。這些發(fā)展將會(huì)把我們帶向何方呢當(dāng)一個(gè)人分析宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)問題時(shí)應(yīng)該采取何種假設(shè)呢本篇文章的目的就是提供一個(gè)選擇性的探究，探究宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)模型方面來自行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的觀點(diǎn)啟示。我們強(qiáng)調(diào)，來自行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的啟示已經(jīng)在理解宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)現(xiàn)象方面取得了重大進(jìn)步。因?yàn)橄啾扔谠S多經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家曾經(jīng)使用的非?？量痰睦碚摽蚣埽袨榻?jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的啟示能讓我們解釋現(xiàn)實(shí)世界行為的更多方面。已經(jīng)應(yīng)用于宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)模型的一些行為假設(shè)看起來很有應(yīng)用前景，如公平考量。另一方面，我們猜想，行為經(jīng)濟(jì)模型也被需用于解釋宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)難題，比如經(jīng)濟(jì)波動(dòng)的慣性表現(xiàn)。但是，我們并不能確定哪些行為假設(shè)是最好的。仍有一些其他的結(jié)果是由認(rèn)知心理造成的，但認(rèn)知心理的宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)啟示還沒有被挖掘。將行為假設(shè)融入宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)模型并非沒有問題。即使從認(rèn)知心理學(xué)和實(shí)驗(yàn)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)中得到了大量有關(guān)確定行為特征的微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)證據(jù)，我們?nèi)匀缓茈y知曉哪些特征是最貼近于宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)模型的。比如，雖然大量證據(jù)表明宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)消費(fèi)行為存在慣性，但我們并不清楚這個(gè)慣性應(yīng)該被看作習(xí)慣養(yǎng)成的結(jié)果，還是應(yīng)該被看作消費(fèi)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)法則，還是應(yīng)該被看作其它什么。另一個(gè)公開的問題是宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)模型是應(yīng)該引入行為特征，還是應(yīng)該引入來自標(biāo)準(zhǔn)經(jīng)濟(jì)模型的其它偏差，比如經(jīng)濟(jì)摩擦力，不完全信息或者代理問題。因此，需要做更多的研究來指導(dǎo)模型設(shè)定的選擇?；诤暧^經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)中行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的廣泛影響，我們有必要收窄談?wù)摰姆秶?。我們聚焦于?jīng)濟(jì)波動(dòng)，失業(yè)和儲(chǔ)蓄這些核心的宏觀領(lǐng)域，行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的結(jié)論已經(jīng)深入地應(yīng)用于這些領(lǐng)域。作為一個(gè)組織原理，我們使用新凱恩斯模型的變型。雖然新凱恩斯模型被廣泛應(yīng)用于分析經(jīng)濟(jì)波動(dòng)和評(píng)估不同財(cái)政政策的實(shí)際效力，它仍然有顯著的經(jīng)驗(yàn)缺陷。彌補(bǔ)這些缺陷的努力主要集中于使用不同的方法來形成模型假設(shè)、期望、名義工資和價(jià)格制定。我們將會(huì)討論這些方面，通過對(duì)消費(fèi)的探討來研究長(zhǎng)期消費(fèi)和儲(chǔ)蓄的問題，通過對(duì)工資和價(jià)格制定的探討來研究長(zhǎng)期勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)問題。我們將會(huì)忽略關(guān)于財(cái)政、增長(zhǎng)率和幸福的問題，因?yàn)槎嘀鼐?、信息的影響和資產(chǎn)市場(chǎng)泡沫這三方面與經(jīng)濟(jì)波動(dòng)相關(guān)，所以我們只會(huì)對(duì)這三個(gè)方面進(jìn)行一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)短的談?wù)?。在每一個(gè)主題中，我們都將討論基于行為假定的關(guān)鍵創(chuàng)新，也包括非行為假定的選擇。遺憾的是，由于空間有限，論文內(nèi)容也必須在被覆蓋的專題內(nèi)進(jìn)NAIRU的證據(jù)相矛盾。該證據(jù)是當(dāng)產(chǎn)出相對(duì)高于自然率水平時(shí)，通貨膨脹就會(huì)增加。貝爾從中央銀行的可信度視角來看待這個(gè)問題。他表示新凱恩斯模型意味著可信的通貨緊縮應(yīng)該伴隨著膨脹，但是現(xiàn)實(shí)證據(jù)表明實(shí)際通貨緊縮與衰退相聯(lián)系。這些問題已經(jīng)使得希望使用這個(gè)模型的人面臨一個(gè)糾結(jié)的選擇或者在理論的支持下使用這個(gè)模型但是面臨實(shí)證的缺陷，或者改變模型使其更貼近于數(shù)據(jù)。一些研究者已經(jīng)采取了后一種做法，比如魯?shù)喜际病Ｒ粋€(gè)較好的解決辦法是找到一個(gè)微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)支持的符合宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)數(shù)據(jù)的模型。菲雷爾和摩爾建議了一個(gè)模型，在該模型中，經(jīng)濟(jì)人關(guān)心相關(guān)的實(shí)際工資。一個(gè)更加普遍的構(gòu)想是混合模型，該模型中一部分經(jīng)濟(jì)人是有遠(yuǎn)見的，而另一部分經(jīng)濟(jì)人是短視的。雖然這個(gè)模型很明顯具有吸引人的要素，但它仍然受到嚴(yán)厲的批判。它被認(rèn)為與證據(jù)相矛盾，尤其是有遠(yuǎn)見的經(jīng)紀(jì)人那部分被稱為實(shí)證無效。越來越多的研究者轉(zhuǎn)向行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)來尋找微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)基礎(chǔ)，進(jìn)而創(chuàng)造更好的宏觀經(jīng)驗(yàn)預(yù)測(cè)。其中大部分是探索不同的消費(fèi)模型，探索期望產(chǎn)生的不同思考方式或者探索決定名義工資的不同模型。我們?cè)诮酉聛淼膬刹糠痔接戇@三個(gè)主題，并且進(jìn)一步利用消費(fèi)的討論來檢驗(yàn)長(zhǎng)期消費(fèi)和儲(chǔ)蓄的選擇。3消費(fèi)消費(fèi)31消費(fèi)歐拉方程消費(fèi)歐拉方程和短期行為和短期行為行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)有著最大影響的領(lǐng)域之一就是家庭消費(fèi)的研究?；魻査珜?dǎo)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)消費(fèi)歐拉方程的方法已經(jīng)不能夠解釋現(xiàn)實(shí)行為的關(guān)鍵領(lǐng)域。根據(jù)長(zhǎng)期收入假說，消費(fèi)應(yīng)該是一個(gè)純粹前瞻性的變量，該變量取決于消費(fèi)者預(yù)期的包含未來勞動(dòng)收入的凈財(cái)富。因此,消費(fèi)應(yīng)該對(duì)未來預(yù)期收入的新信息立刻回應(yīng),但是會(huì)更少響應(yīng)當(dāng)前可支配收入的變化,只要后者沒有透露關(guān)于未來收入的信息。然而,經(jīng)驗(yàn)證據(jù)表明,消費(fèi)更少的回應(yīng)新信息,結(jié)果是,消費(fèi)者會(huì)表現(xiàn)出“過度平滑”坎貝爾和迪頓,1989。消費(fèi)者也會(huì)對(duì)當(dāng)前收入“過于敏感”。這些結(jié)果都已被達(dá)菲通過實(shí)驗(yàn)證實(shí)。然而，還應(yīng)該指出的是，一些實(shí)驗(yàn)還發(fā)現(xiàn)了其它關(guān)于這一理論的預(yù)測(cè)。比如，消費(fèi)會(huì)對(duì)折扣或者利率的改變產(chǎn)生反應(yīng)，這已經(jīng)得到實(shí)驗(yàn)支持。對(duì)過度平滑的一個(gè)傳統(tǒng)的行為解釋是消費(fèi)者習(xí)慣的養(yǎng)成。如波拉克1970，亞伯1990和菲雷爾2000。習(xí)慣的養(yǎng)成起源于稟賦效應(yīng)，稟賦效應(yīng)是一個(gè)認(rèn)知心理學(xué)實(shí)驗(yàn)的結(jié)果，該實(shí)驗(yàn)中，個(gè)人所擁有的財(cái)富物品對(duì)其擁有者的價(jià)值會(huì)有所增長(zhǎng)，如勒文施泰因和艾德勒1995表明的那樣。稟賦效應(yīng)廣泛用于宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)它的使用加快了行為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)在過去的幾十年里的進(jìn)步,研究也表明,它對(duì)其他經(jīng)濟(jì)問題也有重要意義,如股權(quán)溢價(jià)之謎康斯坦丁尼德斯,1990。這些模型表明，基于新凱恩斯IS曲線的消費(fèi)歐拉方程將消費(fèi)比率和習(xí)慣與臨近時(shí)期的參考水平聯(lián)系了起來，等式1將會(huì)含有滯后的產(chǎn)出期。以此為基礎(chǔ)的另一種新凱恩斯曲線，通過改變消費(fèi)的參考水平，能夠加強(qiáng)產(chǎn)出波動(dòng)影響的持續(xù)性。采用這個(gè)方法提高了財(cái)政政策標(biāo)準(zhǔn)模型的經(jīng)驗(yàn)關(guān)聯(lián)性。菲雷爾發(fā)現(xiàn)包括習(xí)慣形成在內(nèi)，在某種意義上,消費(fèi)者的效用在一定程度上取決于相對(duì)于過去消費(fèi)量的當(dāng)前消費(fèi),斯麥茨和沃特斯也在他們的模型中使用了同樣的方法。雖然習(xí)慣的形成在現(xiàn)代宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)研究的許多方面扮演了重要的角色，但經(jīng)驗(yàn)上的證據(jù)還是混雜的。戴南2000發(fā)現(xiàn)在美國(guó)家庭中沒有證據(jù)支持習(xí)慣形成,而愛麗絲和塔帕2010發(fā)現(xiàn)了一些證據(jù)支持荷蘭家庭存在習(xí)慣形成,但力度相當(dāng)小。福薩洛和特科沃斯基2011在核對(duì)美國(guó)家庭賬目的基礎(chǔ)上分析了消費(fèi)行為，結(jié)果也沒得出習(xí)慣形成的證據(jù)。然而，作者們解釋到，他們的發(fā)現(xiàn)若作為證據(jù)來支持由坎貝爾和曼昆提出的“經(jīng)驗(yàn)法則”消費(fèi)類型是具有流動(dòng)性約束的。鑒于習(xí)慣形成的證據(jù)混雜,其在宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)模型的使用可能更多的被視為一種分析慣性產(chǎn)生的便利方式，而不是作為一個(gè)消費(fèi)的微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)基礎(chǔ)的真正反映。并且，還有很多替代習(xí)慣形成的分析方式。帕格爾表明，基于損失厭惡的期望模型能夠解釋消費(fèi)對(duì)當(dāng)前收入的過量敏感性。加利等人2007把經(jīng)驗(yàn)法則消費(fèi)者融入一個(gè)改進(jìn)的新凱恩斯模型中,結(jié)果表明,這

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