外文翻譯--發(fā)展中國家和美國之間產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易的決定因素（節(jié)選）

1、<p>　　中文3608字,2170單詞，1.2萬英文字符</p><p>　　本科畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯</p><p>　　外文題目：Determinants of Intra-Industry Trade Between Developing </p><p>　　Countries and the United States

2、 </p><p>　　出 處：Journal of Economic Development </p><p>　　作 者：Don P. Clark and Denise L. Stanley </p><p><b>　　譯 文：<

3、/b></p><p>　　發(fā)展中國家和美國之間產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易的決定因素</p><p>　　Helpman and Krugman (1985)研究國家特征確定南北模型的產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易。這些地區(qū)之間最重要的區(qū)別在于在他們的相對要素稟賦。北方是資本相對豐富，南是勞動力相對豐富。在生產(chǎn)規(guī)模收益遞增的競爭激烈市場和具有恒定報酬比例的同質(zhì)勞動密集型產(chǎn)品上的條件下，每個區(qū)域生產(chǎn)一種差異化、資本相對密

4、集的制成品。這兩個地區(qū)消費者的需求呈現(xiàn)多樣化。南部出口勞動密集型產(chǎn)品。這兩個地區(qū)生產(chǎn)和出口各種不同的產(chǎn)品，但是北部是制成品的凈出口國。在這里，在資本密集型的差異化產(chǎn)品報酬遞增產(chǎn)業(yè)間貿(mào)易規(guī)模報酬與勞動共存密集產(chǎn)品而產(chǎn)生的產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易是由國家間的不同而造成的。</p><p>　　Helpman and Krugman (1985)證明了產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易取決于貿(mào)易國雙方的相對要素稟賦和經(jīng)濟規(guī)模。生產(chǎn)要素的均衡再分配，使得南北

5、或多或少的在經(jīng)濟規(guī)模上的不相等，顯示出產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易總量的減少（增加）。當要素再分配不改變南北方的相對大小，反而增加（減少）相對要素稟賦的不平等性，產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易總量將減少（增加）。因此，產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易會因為南北雙方相對要素稟賦差異和經(jīng)濟規(guī)模的擴大（縮?。┒鴾p少（增加）。</p><p>　　Flam and Helpman(1987),Falvey and Kierzkowski（1987）,and Falvey（1981

6、）調(diào)查南北產(chǎn)業(yè)水平的決定因素。產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易被看作是一個基于質(zhì)量差異的垂直產(chǎn)品差異化而不是規(guī)模經(jīng)濟或水平產(chǎn)品差異化的結(jié)果。每個行業(yè)包括了區(qū)別在質(zhì)量上的各種各樣的產(chǎn)品。不同的勞動生產(chǎn)率和/或要素稟賦所體現(xiàn)出來的技術(shù)決定了生產(chǎn)的質(zhì)量范圍。自給自足均衡是指，北部享有資本密集型的高品質(zhì)的產(chǎn)品的比較優(yōu)勢，而南部專營勞動密集型的較低質(zhì)量的產(chǎn)品。產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易的產(chǎn)生是因為消費者渴望買到與他們的收入水平相一致的產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量，并因為每個國家生產(chǎn)的品質(zhì)范圍與需要的品質(zhì)

7、范圍不同。由此產(chǎn)生的貿(mào)易模式是北部出口高品質(zhì)的產(chǎn)品，以換取南部較低質(zhì)量的行業(yè)分類相同的產(chǎn)品。</p><p>　　南北貿(mào)易模型所用的變量通常用于識別美國和30個發(fā)展中國家雙邊貿(mào)易中的國家和產(chǎn)業(yè)水平的產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易的決定因素。Helpman and Krugman (1985) 認為產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易的份額與橫跨國家間的相對要素稟賦和相對國家大小的差異有關(guān)。國家間相對要素稟賦相差越大，產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易的份額越小。由于貿(mào)易合作伙伴規(guī)模

8、擴大，美國和發(fā)展中國家規(guī)模越來越相似。規(guī)模較小的國家將對產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易份額有積極影響。我們期望產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易與要素稟賦的差異呈現(xiàn)負相關(guān)。</p><p>　　貿(mào)易伙伴之間的距離作為交易非標準化產(chǎn)品所必須的一個信息成本代理。Balassa and Bauwens（1987）認為非標準化的產(chǎn)品特性比標準化商品特性需要更多的信息。與標準產(chǎn)品相比，克服距離相關(guān)的摩擦將更多地為了可替換的非標準產(chǎn)品而相應(yīng)地阻止貿(mào)易。產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易將被消

9、極地與美國及其一個貿(mào)易伙伴之間的距離聯(lián)系起來。</p><p>　　一個發(fā)展中國家的貿(mào)易方向也將影響產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易。Falvey（1981）的模型顯示了有更少貿(mào)易壁壘的國家，將有較高水平的產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易。沿著Stone and Lee（1995）,Balassa and Bauwens（1987）,Balassa（1986）的研究,貿(mào)易方向是以基于人均所得和人口數(shù)量上的人均貿(mào)易（出口加進口）的回歸殘差為代表的。產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易

10、份額將與發(fā)展中國家的貿(mào)易戰(zhàn)略取向（TO）正相關(guān)。</p><p>　　Grubel and Lloyd（1975）認為對產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易的測量會受到一個國家貿(mào)易平衡與否的影響。這種影響會更加擴大凈貿(mào)易所占份額，使產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易所占份額變小。該指數(shù)應(yīng)該與貿(mào)易不平衡負相關(guān)，所以如果貿(mào)易不平衡是與解釋性變量相關(guān)，估計回歸方程系數(shù)會出現(xiàn)偏差。根據(jù)Stone and Lee（1995）,我們包含了一個不平衡的貿(mào)易措施來控制這個可能出

11、現(xiàn)的偏差。產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易被期望與貿(mào)易不平衡負相關(guān)。</p><p>　　各種產(chǎn)業(yè)水平的特征也被看作對南北模型的產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易有影響。產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易的范圍不但會被產(chǎn)品標準化和差異化程度所影響，也會被全球的生產(chǎn)過程的綜合性質(zhì)所影響。</p><p>　　Balassa（1986），Greenaway and Milner（1986）認為,廠級規(guī)模經(jīng)濟出現(xiàn)在那些由于縮小工廠規(guī)模而降低成本的生產(chǎn)標準化產(chǎn)品的產(chǎn)

12、業(yè)中。這種橫向?qū)I(yè)化導致的結(jié)果是標準化的產(chǎn)品與產(chǎn)業(yè)間貿(mào)易聯(lián)系起來。垂直專業(yè)化使零件、部件、配件以及最終產(chǎn)品在不同的工廠進行生產(chǎn)。運營操作被細分到許多工廠之后，工廠的規(guī)模是減小而不是增大。垂直專業(yè)化導致非標準化的產(chǎn)品和產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易的發(fā)生。如最低效率規(guī)模一樣，廠級規(guī)模經(jīng)濟的傳統(tǒng)測量方法是與產(chǎn)品的標準化程度正相關(guān)。最低效率規(guī)模是長期平均成本達到其最低水平時的最小產(chǎn)量。由于最低效率規(guī)模反映了產(chǎn)品的標準化程度，非標準化的產(chǎn)品與產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易有關(guān)，南北模

13、型的產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易份額與最低效率規(guī)模預計呈負相關(guān)。</p><p>　　有三個因素充當著產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)專業(yè)化分工潛在收益的額外代表。產(chǎn)品的標準化也關(guān)系到賣方集中程度和行業(yè)單位數(shù)目。Balassa（1986）認為當賣方的集中程度變大時，一個行業(yè)的差異化產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)將減少。擁有許多公司的行業(yè)會生產(chǎn)大量的差異化產(chǎn)品。賣方四企業(yè)表示濃度表示四個最大的公司在1992年的裝運值的比重。產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易與賣方四企業(yè)集中度（CR4）預計呈負相關(guān)，與機

14、構(gòu)單位數(shù)目呈正相關(guān)。</p><p>　　部門分散指數(shù)，作為一個從產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)獲得潛在收益的專業(yè)化代理，它反映了產(chǎn)業(yè)消費者的多樣化。該指數(shù)的下限值是與行業(yè)服務(wù)于很可能使用定做產(chǎn)品的廣大消費者各種產(chǎn)業(yè)。產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易預計將部門分散指數(shù)（DSPH）呈負相關(guān)。</p><p>　　南北貿(mào)易模式視產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易為一個基于不同質(zhì)量而導致垂直產(chǎn)品差異的結(jié)果。根據(jù)同一行業(yè)的分類，北部向南部出口高質(zhì)量產(chǎn)品換取低質(zhì)量的產(chǎn)

15、品下降了。垂直產(chǎn)品差異被代理為1987年的廣告對銷售的比率，廣告意在區(qū)分產(chǎn)品，利用質(zhì)量的不同，轉(zhuǎn)移需求函數(shù)，或者改變價格需求彈性。建立在產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量不同上的垂直產(chǎn)品差異的范圍將在高廣告強度的工業(yè)中更廣泛。預計南北產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易模式更會被積極的聯(lián)系到廣告銷售率上。</p><p>　　影響南北產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易的兩個變量涉及到生產(chǎn)過程的性質(zhì)。其中的第一個是由測資本與勞動的比例測量的生產(chǎn)的資本密集度。北部出口優(yōu)質(zhì)資本密集型產(chǎn)品去交換

16、南部屬于同一行業(yè)分類的低質(zhì)量勞動密集型產(chǎn)品。要素密集度會影響生產(chǎn)的品質(zhì)。勞動力越密集，低勞動力成本國家生產(chǎn)產(chǎn)品的規(guī)模越大。產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易預計與資本與勞動的比值呈負相關(guān)。</p><p>　　Balassa（1986）認為海上裝配條款鼓勵垂直產(chǎn)品專業(yè)化。工業(yè)與垂直整合的生產(chǎn)過程可以使用海上裝配條款按照合理化與比較優(yōu)勢格局生產(chǎn)。將要出口美國行業(yè)高、中級技術(shù)產(chǎn)品和部件，進口技術(shù)含量低的勞動密集型產(chǎn)品和組件。海上裝配條款是衡

17、量1992年的進口總額中的海上裝配條款進口份額。產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易的份額將與海上裝配條款的活性呈正相關(guān)。</p><p>　　最后一個變量包含在代理分類匯總。一些研究認為，當更好層次的產(chǎn)品集合用于定義產(chǎn)業(yè)時，產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易將減少。這導致了一種預期認為那些由許多產(chǎn)品群組成的大型產(chǎn)業(yè)比由少數(shù)產(chǎn)品群組成的存在更多的產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易。按照Marvel and Ray（1987）的研究，分類聚合是由工業(yè)代理貨物的價值，承擔更多聚集在裝運價值

18、較高的行業(yè)。產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易預計將積極與工業(yè)的出貨量呈正相關(guān)。國家特點這一概念是來自聯(lián)合國（1997）、經(jīng)濟學人（1997）和Fitzpatric and Modlin（1986）。DIFF初始單位為美元。衡量國內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值所用的單位是百萬美元。距離單位是公里。用于構(gòu)造產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易指數(shù)的進出口數(shù)字是從美國統(tǒng)計局（1993）得來的。進口貨值的海上裝配條款是從美國統(tǒng)計局（1995）得來的。CR4是從美國統(tǒng)計局（1992）得來的。DSPH和AS計算是從

19、美國商務(wù)部（1994）得來的。MES、ESTAB、KL和VS是從美國統(tǒng)計局（1995）得來的。KL是衡量美國百萬美元的產(chǎn)業(yè)每個工人的資本數(shù)。ESTAB的衡量單位是萬。VS的衡量單位是百萬美元。</p><p>　　產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易被發(fā)現(xiàn)隨著越大的南北間相對要素稟賦差異(人均國內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值)而逐漸減弱。貿(mào)易伙伴的規(guī)模對產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易有積極影響。這些研究結(jié)果和Helpman and Krugman（1985）的理論模型是一致的。

20、距離對產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易有著消極的影響。發(fā)展中國家貿(mào)易的方向?qū)Ξa(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易產(chǎn)生了積極的的影響。</p><p>　　南北貿(mào)易理論模型視產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易是建立在保證質(zhì)量基礎(chǔ)上的垂直產(chǎn)品差異化，而不是由于規(guī)模經(jīng)濟或水平產(chǎn)品差異化問題的后果。一些研究結(jié)果支持這些模型結(jié)論。我們在產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易和廣告強度之間發(fā)現(xiàn)的一個積極關(guān)系支持了垂直產(chǎn)品差異化的作用。規(guī)模經(jīng)濟并沒有被發(fā)現(xiàn)在產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易程度上發(fā)揮決定作用。這可能是由于這樣的事實:技術(shù)含量不高產(chǎn)

21、品聚集在發(fā)展中國家都不容易使用自動化大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)設(shè)備。一個產(chǎn)業(yè)的要素集中程度會影響生產(chǎn)品質(zhì)的范圍。當貨物可由勞動密集型行業(yè)的生產(chǎn)技術(shù)進行生產(chǎn)時，垂直產(chǎn)品差異化的范圍將擴大。我們在南北產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易和產(chǎn)業(yè)資本勞動力比率中找到一個消極的關(guān)系。北部出口優(yōu)質(zhì)資本密集型產(chǎn)品去交換南部屬于同一行業(yè)分類的低質(zhì)量勞動密集型產(chǎn)品。海上裝配條款的使用,我們的產(chǎn)業(yè)代表全球一體化的特點,這樣就對產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易程度產(chǎn)生了積極的影響。這一發(fā)現(xiàn)也適用于垂直產(chǎn)品差異化對產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)

22、易的決定作用。美國產(chǎn)業(yè)從事生產(chǎn)共享操作傾向于出口高、中級技術(shù)，進口產(chǎn)品和組件的勞動密集型產(chǎn)品和低技術(shù)含量的部件。</p><p>　　美國和發(fā)展中國家之間相當份額的制成品貿(mào)易組成了產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易。貿(mào)易自由化會繼續(xù)增大產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易份額在貿(mào)易總額的比率。當兩個國家在相對要素稟賦與經(jīng)濟規(guī)模變得更相似時，產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易會更強大。更多的產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易會發(fā)生在垂直分化、非標準和全球一體化的大產(chǎn)業(yè)所生產(chǎn)的定做產(chǎn)品。南北貿(mào)易理論和實證模型應(yīng)該

23、關(guān)注那些南北之間的與國家特點、基于質(zhì)量差異的垂直產(chǎn)品差異化、產(chǎn)品標準化程度和勞動成本相關(guān)的產(chǎn)業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易來源。</p><p>　　Determinants of Intra-Industry Trade Between Developing Countries and the United States</p><p>　　Don P. Clark and Deni

24、se L. Stanley</p><p>　　Helpman and Krugman (1985) explore the role of country characteristics in determining North-South IIT. The most important difference between these regions lies in their relat

25、ive factor endowments. The North is relatively capital abundant and the South is labor abundant. Each region produces a differentiated, relatively capital-intensive manufactured good under conditions of increa

26、sing returns to scale in a monopolistically competitive market, and a homogeneous labor-</p><p>　　Helpman and Krugman (1985) demonstrate the volume of IIT depends on both</p><

27、p>　　relative factor endowments and economic size of trading nations. A proportional reallocation of productive factors that makes the North and South more (less) unequal in economic size is shown to re

28、duce (increase) the volume of IIT. When a reallocation of factors does not alter the relative size of the North and South, but increases (decreases) the disparity in relative factor endowments, the volume of II

29、T will decrease (increase). Thus, IIT will tend to decrease (inc</p><p>　　Flam and Helpman (1987), Falvey and Kierzkowski (1987), and Falvey (1981)</p><p>　　examine industry-level d

30、eterminants of North-South trade. IIT is viewed as a consequence of vertical product differentiation based on quality differences, rather than as a result of scale economies or horizontal product different

31、iation. Each industry is defined to include a variety of products differing in quality. Technology reflected in labor productivity differences and/or factor endowments determines the range of qualities produced. The

32、 autarky equilibrium is one in which</p><p>　　Variables suggested by models of North-South trade are used to identify country and industry-level determinants of IIT in bilateral trade between the U.S. and

33、 30 developing countries. Helpman and Krugman (1985) relate the share of IIT to cross-country differences in relative factor endowments and relative country size. The more countries differ in relative factor en

34、dowments, the smaller the share of IIT. As the size of the trading partner grows, the U.S. and a developing c</p><p>　　Distance between trading partners serves as a proxy for costs of information n

35、ecessary for trading nonstandardized products. Balassa and Bauwens (1987) argue more information is required on characteristics of nonstandardized products than on character- istics of standardized goods. Frictions ass

36、ociated with overcoming distance will deter trade proportionately more for closely substitutable nonstandardized products than for standardized goods.8 IIT should be negatively correlated with</p><p&

37、gt;　　Trade orientation of a developing country will also influence IIT. Falvey’s (1981) model shows countries with lower trade barriers will have higher levels of IIT. Following Stone and Lee (1995), Balassa and Bau

38、wens (1987), and Balassa (1986), trade orientation is proxied by the residuals from a regression of per capita trade (exports plus imports) on per capita income and population. The share of IIT will b

39、e positively correlated with the developing country’s trade</p><p>　　Grubel and Lloyd (1975) note their measure of IIT will be affected by the trade imbalance of a country. This effect wi

40、ll be greater the larger the share of net trade and the smaller the share of IIT in total trade. The index should be negatively correlated with the trade imbalance so estimated coefficients in th

41、e regression equation will be biased if the trade imbalance is correlated with the explanatory variables. Following Stone and Lee (1</p><p>　　According to Balassa (1986) and Greenaway and Mil

42、ner (1986), plant-level scale economies are captured in industries producing standardized products whose costs decline with increases in plant size. This horizontal specialization results in standardized products tha

43、t are associated with inter-industry trade. Vertical specialization entails producing parts, components, accessories, and the final product in different plants. Plant size is decreased rather than increased as operat

44、ions are su</p><p>　　Three factors serve as additional proxies for potential gains from intraindustry specialization. Product standardization is also related to the extent of seller concentrat

45、ion and the number of establishments in an industry. Balassa (1986) argues the number of differentiated products produced in an industry will decline as seller concentration increases. Industries with many es

46、tablishments will produce a larger number of differentiated products. The four-firm seller con</p><p>　　The sectoral dispersion index, which reflects the diversity of industry consumers,</p>

47、<p>　　serves as a proxy for potential gains from intraindustry specialization. Lower values of this index are associated with industries serving a wide variety of industrial consumers who are likel

48、y to do so with made-to-order products. IIT is expected to be negatively correlated with the sectoral dispersion index (DSPH).</p><p>　　North-South trade models view IIT as a consequence of vertical pr

49、oduct differentiation based on quality differences. The North exports high quality products to the South in exchange for lower quality products falling under the same industry classification. Vertical product differentia

50、tion is proxied by the 1987 advertising-to-sales ratio. Advertising is intended to differentiate products, exploit quality differences, shift the demand function, and/or change the price elasticity of demand for a</

51、p><p>　　Two variables influencing North-South IIT relate to the nature of the production process. The first of these is the capital intensity of production, measured by the capital-to-labor ratio. North-South I

52、IT involves the North exporting capital intensive high-quality products and components to the South in exchange for labor intensive lower-quality products and components falling under the same industry classification.

53、Factor intensity will influence the range of qualities produced. The </p><p>　　The globally integrated nature of an industry is proxied by industrial participation</p><p>　　und

54、er offshore assembly provisions (OAPs) in the U.S. tariff code. OAPs refer to items HTS 9802 of the Tariff Schedule of the United States. HTS tariff item 9802.00.60 (formerly 806.3) allows metal articles to be

55、 imported duty-free into the U.S. except for the value of processing performed abroad. HTS item 9802.00.80 (formerly 807.00) covers imported articles assembled abroad with U.S. - made components. Duties are asses

56、sed on the full value of the item less the value of the U</p><p>　　Balassa (1986) argues OAPs encourage vertical product specialization. Industries with vertically integrated production processes ca

57、n use OAPs to rationalize production in accordance with the pattern of comparative advantage. A U.S industry will export high and intermediate-technology products and components, and import low-technolog

58、y labor intensive products and components. OAP is measured as the share of OAP imports in total 1992 imports. The share of IIT i</p><p>　　A final variable is included to proxy categorical aggrega

59、tion. Several studies have argued that IIT should fall when finer levels of product aggregation are used to define industries. This leads to an expectation that large industries comprised of many product groups should h

60、ave more IIT than industries with only a few product groups. Following Marvel and Ray (1987), categorical aggregation is proxied by the value of industry shipments, assuming more aggregation is involved in industri

61、es </p><p>　　Country characteristics are taken from United Nations (1997), the Economist (1997),</p><p>　　and Fitzpatric and Modlin (1986). DIFF is measured in U.S. dollars. GDP is

62、 expressed in millions of U.S. dollars. Distance is in kilometers. Export and import figures used to construct the IIT index are from the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1993). The value of OAP import

63、s is from the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1995a). CR4 is from the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1992). DSPH and AS are calculated from the U.S. Department of Commerce (1994). MES, ESTAB, KL, </p><p>　　I

64、IT is found to fall with greater differences in relative factor endowments (proxied by differences in per capita GDP) between the North and South. Size of the trading partner influences IIT in a positive way. These fin

65、dings are consistent with predictions of Helpman and Krugman’s (1985) theoretical model. Distance influences IIT in a negative way. Trade orientation of the developing country exerts a positive effect on

66、IIT.</p><p>　　Theoretical models of NS trade view IIT as a consequence of vertical product</p><p>　　differentiation based on quality differences rather than as a result of

67、 scale economies or horizontal product differentiation. Several findings support conclusions of these models. Our finding of a positive relationship between IIT and advertising intensity supports the role of

68、 vertical product differentiation. Scale economies are not found to play a role in determining the extent of IIT. This could be due to the fact that low-technology products assembled in de</p><p>　

69、　A considerable share of trade in manufactured goods between the U.S. and developing countries is found to consist of IIT. As trade liberalization continues the share of IIT in total trade can be expected t

70、o grow. IIT will be greater as countries become more similar both in relative factor endowments and economic size. More IIT will occur in vertically differentiated, nonstandard, made-to-order products prod