外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯---項目成本減少與控制

1、<p><b>　?、?外文翻譯</b></p><p><b>　　外文翻譯之一</b></p><p>　　Project Budget Monitor and Control</p><p>　　Author：Yin Guo-li</p><p>　　Nationality：Amer

2、ican</p><p>　　Derivation： Management Science and Engineering. Montreal: Mar 20, 2010</p><p><b>　　.</b></p><p>　　With the marketing competitiveness growing, it is more an

3、d more critical in budget control of each project. This paper discusses that in the construction phase, how can a project manager be successful in budget control. There are many methods discussed in this paper, it reveal

4、s that to be successful, the project manager must concern all this methods.</p><p>　　1. INTRODUCTION</p><p>　　The survey shows that most projects encounter cost over-runs (Williams Ackermann, Ed

5、en, 2002,pl92). According to Wright (1997)'s research, a good rule of thumb is to add a minimum of 50% to the first estimate of the budget (Gardiner and Stewart, 1998, p251). It indicates that project is very complex

6、 and full of challenge. Many unexpected issues will lead the project cost over-runs. Therefore, many technologies and methods are developed for successful monitoring and control to lead the project to</p><p>

7、;　　2. THE CONCEPT AND THE PURPOSE OF PROJECT CONTROL AND MONITOR</p><p>　　Erel and Raz (2000) state that the project control cycle consists of measuring the status of the project, comparing to the plan, anal

8、ysis of the deviations, and implementing any appropriate corrective actions. When a project reach the construction phase, monitor and control is critical to deliver the project success. Project monitoring exists to estab

9、lish the need to take corrective action, whilst there is still time to take action. Through monitoring the activities, the project team can analyze</p><p>　　3. SETTING UP AN EFFICIENT CONTROL SYSTEM</p>

10、;<p>　　For the purpose of achieving cost target, the manager need to set up an efficient management framework including: reporting structure, assessing progress, and communication system. The employees' respon

11、sibility and authority need to be defined in the reporting structure. The formal and informal assessing progress can help getting a general perspective between reality and target. It is significant to help identify what

12、is the risk and should be monitored and controlled. Project success is strongl</p><p>　　4. COST MONITOR AND CONTROL</p><p>　　4.1 Ranking the priority of monitoring</p><p>　　In cons

13、truction phase, many activities are carried out based on the original plan. It is need to know what kind of activities or things are most likely to lead the project delay and disruption. Therefore, the first step is rank

14、ing the priority of the activities. Because the duration of a project is determined by the total time of activities on critical path, any delay in an activity on the critical path will cause a delay in the completion dat

15、e for the project (Ackermann Eden, Howick and William</p><p>　　4.2Methods of cost control</p><p>　　The main cost of a project includes staff cost, material cost and delay cost. To control these

16、cost, managers should first set up a cost control system to:</p><p>　　a) Allocate responsibilities for administration and analysis of financial data</p><p>　　b) Ensure all costs are properly all

17、ocated against project codes</p><p>　　c) Ensure all costs are genuinely in pursuit of project activities</p><p>　　d) Check that other projects are not using the budget.</p><p>　　The

18、n, managers should monitor and control change to the project budget. It means the following things:</p><p>　　a) Concerned with key factors that cause changes to the budget</p><p>　　b) Controllin

19、g actual cost changes as they occur</p><p>　　- Monitor cost performance to detect variances</p><p>　　- Record all appropriate changes accurately in the cost baseline</p><p>　　- Prev

20、enting incorrect, unauthorized changes being included in the cost baseline</p><p>　　- Determine positive and negative variances</p><p>　　- Integrated with all other control processes (scope, cha

21、nge, schedule, quality)</p><p>　　As a project is dynamic, sometimes the project managers know the project is going out off target by monitoring, but don't know the best action to take. In this circumstan

22、ce, net present value (NPV) should be used as an ongoing monitor and control mechanism, because NPV takes account of the time element and discounts future cash flows, it is the result of the time effect on cash</p>

23、<p>　　4.3 Change monitor and control</p><p>　　Voropajev (1998) states that dynamic changes of project environment will influence the process of project implementation, the project itself and may cause

24、 heightened risk. When carried out some activities, the methods different from that in the original plan must be used to keep the process moving forward (as experienced under practice). Therefore, changes are inevitable

25、and need to be managed during project life-cycle (Voropajev. 1998,p 16- 17) .An effective change control system should be esta</p><p>　　a) Monitoring and forecasting most probable changes Key factors that ge

26、nerate change to ensure good results; make sure that change must be checked by suitable person.</p><p>　　b) Changes should take place once it is approved and be monitored to check whether it worked as expect

27、ed</p><p>　　c) All changes in project should be recorded in the project documentation (Voropajev, 1998,pl8).</p><p>　　5. CONCLUSION</p><p>　　This article shows the best methods of b

28、udget control. First, an efficient control system must be set up. Secondly, It is required to recognize and rank the important factors affecting budget target. Thirdly, manager should combine different control techniques

29、 to reach the success of a project.</p><p><b>　　項目成本減少與控制</b></p><p>　　作者：Yin Guo-li</p><p><b>　　國籍：美國</b></p><p>　　出處：管理科學(xué)與工程．2010.03.20</p&

30、gt;<p>　　隨著市場競爭的激烈性越來越大，在每一個項目中，進(jìn)行成本控制越發(fā)重要。本文論述了在施工階段，項目經(jīng)理如何成功地控制項目預(yù)算成本。本文討論了很多方法。它表明，要取得成功，項目經(jīng)理必須關(guān)注這些成功的方法。</p><p><b>　　1.簡介</b></p><p>　　調(diào)查顯示，大多數(shù)項目會碰到超出預(yù)算的問題(Williams Ackerm

31、ann, Eden, 2002,pl92)。據(jù)Wright（1997）的研究，一個好的經(jīng)驗法則就是相比首次成本預(yù)算至少會增加50%(Gardiner and Stewart, 1998, p251)。這表明，項目是非常復(fù)雜并且充滿挑戰(zhàn)的。很多意想不到的因素會導(dǎo)致項目成本的增加。因此，許多科學(xué)技術(shù)和方法被應(yīng)用于監(jiān)測和控制成本來促使項目的成功。在這篇文章中，我們將討論在施工階段，項目經(jīng)理如何才能成功控制預(yù)算成本。</p>&l

32、t;p>　　2.項目控制和監(jiān)測的概念和目的</p><p>　　Erel and Raz (2000)指出項目控制周期包括測量成本是實際情況，將施工成本的實際值和計劃值進(jìn)行比較，對比較結(jié)果進(jìn)行分析，并采取適當(dāng)?shù)拇胧﹣砑m正偏差。項目在施工階段的監(jiān)測和控制對于項目的成功是至關(guān)重要的。為了采取正確的糾偏措施需要建立項目監(jiān)測機(jī)制，同時這樣做也可以有時間來采取措施。通過監(jiān)測手段，項目團(tuán)隊可以分析偏差產(chǎn)生的原因以及決定

33、糾偏措施并采取行動。監(jiān)控的目的就是糾偏措施的實施，確保項目控制在計劃目標(biāo)內(nèi)或者使已經(jīng)偏離計劃的回到目標(biāo)范圍內(nèi)。</p><p>　　3.建立一個有效的控制體系</p><p>　　為了實現(xiàn)預(yù)算成本的目標(biāo)，項目管理者需要建立一個高效的管理框架，包括：報告的結(jié)構(gòu)，評估的進(jìn)展情況以及溝通體系。在報告結(jié)構(gòu)中，雇員的責(zé)任和權(quán)力應(yīng)該要清楚地被定義。正式的和非正式的評估可以幫助實際和目標(biāo)之間大體上保持一

34、致，且這對于確定什么是風(fēng)險以及哪些需要被監(jiān)測和控制是非常有幫助的。項目成功與良好的溝通密切相關(guān)，一個高效率的溝通體系有利于團(tuán)隊協(xié)作并促進(jìn)問題的解決( Diallo and Thuillier, 2005)。</p><p>　　4.成本費用的檢測和控制</p><p>　　4.1對檢測的優(yōu)先順序進(jìn)行排序</p><p>　　在施工階段，很多施工活動是基于原來的計劃。

35、它需要清楚什么樣的活動或者哪些東西是最有可能導(dǎo)致項目延誤和不受控制的。因此，第一步就是要對這些活動進(jìn)行優(yōu)先排序。由于項目的工期是由關(guān)鍵路徑上的關(guān)鍵工作的總時間決定的，任何關(guān)鍵路徑上工作的延遲將導(dǎo)致項目工期的拖延(Ackermann Eden, Howick and Williams,2000,p295)。因此，關(guān)鍵路徑上的工作應(yīng)該首先進(jìn)行檢測和控制。其次，檢測沒有自由時差浮動的工作，任何沒有自由時差工作的延誤將導(dǎo)致其后續(xù)工作的拖延，這些

36、后續(xù)工作的延誤將對資源分配安排帶來影響，有些資源被分配到特定的工作是不可以變更利用的。第三，檢測具有較少浮動時間的工作，因為，如果一個工作具有非常少的浮動時間，那么當(dāng)它偏離目標(biāo)的時候很有可能在還沒有采取控制措施前就將浮動時間用完了。第四，項目管理者應(yīng)該檢測高風(fēng)險活動，高風(fēng)險活動最有可能超支。第五，管理者應(yīng)該檢測項目活動中使用的關(guān)鍵資源，有些資源由于是非常昂貴和有限的而至關(guān)重要(Cotterell and Hughes, 1995)。&l

37、t;/p><p>　　4.2成本控制的方法</p><p>　　一個項目的主要費用包括員工成本、材料成本以及工期延誤的成本。為了控制這些成本費用，項目管理者首先應(yīng)該建立一個成本控制系統(tǒng)：</p><p>　　為財務(wù)數(shù)據(jù)的管理和分析工作落實責(zé)任人員</p><p>　　確保按照項目的結(jié)構(gòu)來合理分配所有的成本</p><p>

38、　　確保所有成本都是項目進(jìn)展過程中各項活動的真實支出</p><p>　　檢查其它工程項目沒有使用此項目預(yù)算</p><p>　　然后，項目管理者應(yīng)該對項目預(yù)算進(jìn)行監(jiān)督和控制變更。這意味著以下幾點：</p><p>　　關(guān)注可以引起成本變化的主要因素</p><p><b>　　控制實際成本的變化</b></p&g

39、t;<p>　　--監(jiān)測成本發(fā)生情況來發(fā)現(xiàn)它的變化</p><p>　　--在成本控制線上準(zhǔn)確地記錄所有恰當(dāng)?shù)某杀咀儎?lt;/p><p>　　--為防止出現(xiàn)錯誤，沒有經(jīng)過允許的成本變化也應(yīng)該體現(xiàn)在成本控制線上</p><p>　　--確定積極地和消極的成本變化</p><p>　　--與其它控制目標(biāo)（范圍、變更、進(jìn)度、質(zhì)量）相結(jié)合

40、</p><p>　　由于一個工程項目是動態(tài)變化的，有時項目經(jīng)理通過監(jiān)測知道項目成本正在偏離預(yù)算，但是卻不知道采取什么措施來控制。在這種情況下，凈現(xiàn)值（NPV）能夠被用來作為一種持續(xù)監(jiān)控的方法，因為凈現(xiàn)值考慮了時間的因素來對未來現(xiàn)金流折現(xiàn)，它是現(xiàn)金流考慮時間價值影響后的結(jié)果。</p><p>　　4.3變化的檢測和控制</p><p>　　Voropajev (19

41、98)指出，施工環(huán)境的動態(tài)變化將會影響項目的實施過程、項目本身以及增加項目風(fēng)險的可能性。當(dāng)在開展施工活動的時候，不同于原計劃的各種方法必須被應(yīng)用來保持項目向前推進(jìn)（根據(jù)實踐經(jīng)驗）。因此，變化是不可避免的，需要在項目的整個生命周期過程中管理和控制變化(Voropajev. 1998,p 16- 17)。為了確保變更程序是明確和毫不含糊的以及方便施工人員提出要求發(fā)生改變，應(yīng)該建立一個有效的變更控制體系。可以從以下幾個方面考慮：</p&

42、gt;<p>　　a) 為確保良好的結(jié)果，應(yīng)檢測和預(yù)測最有可能發(fā)生變更的主要因素，應(yīng)該保證變更必須由合適的人員檢查</p><p>　　b）一旦被批準(zhǔn)，變更應(yīng)該發(fā)生并對此進(jìn)行監(jiān)測以檢查是否按預(yù)期工作</p><p>　　c)項目的所有變更應(yīng)該被記錄在項目文件資料中(Voropajev, 1998,pl8)</p><p><b>　　5.結(jié)論

43、</b></p><p>　　本文介紹了控制預(yù)算的最佳方法。首先，必須建立一個高效率的監(jiān)管控制體系；其次，它必須包括影響成本預(yù)算目標(biāo)的主要因素并將它按照重要性排序；第三，項目管理者應(yīng)該結(jié)合不同的科學(xué)控制方法以達(dá)到項目的成功。</p><p><b>　　外文翻譯之二</b></p><p>　　The Contractor'

44、s Role in Building Cost Reduction After Design</p><p>　　Author：Waddle,Todd W.</p><p>　　Nationality：UK</p><p>　　Derivation：Cost Engineering; Feb2008, Vol. 50 Issue 2, p14-21</p>

45、;<p>　　It has become evident from recent news articles that inflationary pressures and increased construction activity are causing many building projects to come in well over owner's budgets. This trend has in

46、creased dramatically over the past few years, as much of the construction industry has been impacted by an unprecedented increase in the cost of construction. The historical rate of increase in construction cost has been

47、 under five percent per year, as reported by the Engineering News Record . Ove</p><p>　　? Shortage of steel resulting from rapid growth in China.</p><p>　　? Demand for materials in the US result

48、ing from increased hurricane damage.</p><p>　　? Rising oil prices leading to higher manufacturing and transportation cost. </p><p>　　? Rising labor cost because of increased construction activit

49、y .</p><p>　　To be successful in having over budget projects awarded, the building contractor has had to take a proactive role in working with owners and design teams to reduce project cost to amounts that o

50、wners are able to award. This cost reduction is normally accomplished through the following methods.</p><p>　　? value engineering;</p><p>　　? scope reduction; </p><p>　　Value Engine

51、ering</p><p>　　Value engineering (VE) has been defined as a systematic method to improve the value of goods and services by using an examination of function. Value, as defined, is the ratio of function to co

52、st. Value can therefore be increased by either improving the function or reducing the cost.</p><p>　　It is a primary tenet of value engineering that quality not be reduced as a consequence of pursuing value

53、improvements . VE is a process originating at General Electric Company (GE) during World War II. Because of shortages of skilled labor, raw materials, and component parts, engineers at GE</p><p>　　looked for

54、 acceptable alternates and often found substitutions that resulted in reduced costs and/or product improvement.</p><p>　　GE developed a systematic process that they called value analysis. Over the years the

55、name gradually changed to VE. The basic steps of VE include the following：</p><p>　　? Information gathering: project requirements defined, function analysis.</p><p>　　? Alternates: various ways

56、of meeting the requirements and functions.</p><p>　　? Evaluation: assessment of alternates on how well they meet requirements and costs savings. </p><p>　　? Presentation: selection of best alter

57、natives to be presented to client for decisions. </p><p>　　True VE evaluates life cycle costs such as initial cost, maintenance cost, operational cost, life span, time value of money, replacement cost, and

58、frequency of replacement. VE can be undertaken at any stage of the building design process; however, it is most effective in the early stages, since it is less costly to make changes to preliminary documents .</p>

59、<p>　　Scope Reduction</p><p>　　Scope reduction involves identifying areas of the project scope of work that can be reduced in quality, quantity, or both in a manner that is acceptable to the owner.<

60、/p><p>　　Scope reduction items of work often consist of material or equipment substitutions that lower the cost of the project, but may not be an equal substitute. An example of quantity scope reduction would b

61、e to reduce the guttering system on a pitched roof from the entire roof perimeter to entrances only. A quality scope reduction example would be to provide vinyl composition floor tiles (VCT) in lieu of ceramic floor tile

62、s.</p><p>　　After a project has been determined to be out of budget because of high bids, the project is normally either cancelled, redesigned and re-bid, or negotiations are held with the low bidder to reac

63、h an acceptable contract amount. For the building contractor that is selected for negotiations, this is an opportunity to move toward project award and to also build a relationship of trust and openness with the owner an

64、d design team that could lead to future projects.</p><p>　　First, the building contractor should meet with the owner and design team to fully understand the owners project requirements, priorities, life cycl

65、e considerations, and budget.</p><p>　　Next, the building contractor's role is to use his estimating and construction expertise to analyze various components and systems within the project for alternate

66、solutions. The contractor should also bring in key subcontractors and suppliers who are often able to identify alternate materials and/or systems within their specialties. Each division of work should be examined and eva

67、luated for VE solutions. In past years, this process and service was considered part of the building contractors ove</p><p>　　project is not awarded to them. </p><p>　　The work breakdown structu

68、re (WBS) can be a helpful tool to the building contractor in analyzing the various components and systems within a building project. The WBS is a tree-type structure of functional systems used to classify the project on

69、a level-by-level basis . This breakdown structure facilitates the evaluation of each system of the project from the building foundations to the completed sitework.</p><p>　　Questions to Ask or Areas and/to C

70、onsider by WBS</p><p>　　This section provides a list of areas for the building contractor to examine and/or questions to ask in the WBS system level format for cost saving alternatives. Some of these changes

71、 can be accomplished</p><p>　　without major re-design cost and incorporated into the construction documents in the form of an addendum. Other changes listed would require extensive re-design and time delays.

72、</p><p>　　SUBSTRUCTURE</p><p>　　—Have alternate types of foundation system been considered?</p><p>　　? wood piles in lieu of precast;</p><p>　　? drilled caissons vs. pi

73、les; </p><p>　　? mat foundations in place of piles or caissons.</p><p>　　—Evaluate sand base in place of gravel or stone under slab on grade.</p><p>　　SUPERSTRUCTURE</p><

74、p>　　—Have alternate types of building structures been evaluated?</p><p>　　? structural steel, precast concrete, cast in place concrete, light gauge steel framing or wood framing systems.</p><p&

75、gt;　　—Compare Alternate Stair Systems.</p><p>　　? steel pan stairs vs. precast concrete or cast in place concrete.</p><p>　　EXTERIOR CLOSURE</p><p>　　—Evaluate exterior wall systems

76、.</p><p>　　? Light gauge metal framing in lieu of reinforced concrete masonry units.</p><p>　　? Can wall widths or gauges be reduced?</p><p>　　—Compare sheathing systems.</p>

77、<p>　　? Fiber sheathings in place of cement boards.</p><p>　　—Review alternate wall insulation systems.</p><p>　　? Batt insulations, rigid insulation materials, loose fill block insulation

78、.</p><p>　　—Consider alternate exterior wall veneers.</p><p>　　? Conventional stucco versus exterior insulation finish system.</p><p>　　? Brick or precast in lieu of stone.</p>

79、;<p>　　—Evaluate alternate glazing systems.</p><p>　　? Can exterior glazed areas be reduced?</p><p>　　? Storefronts in lieu of curtainwalls if code allows.</p><p>　　? Painted

80、 aluminum in lieu of stainless steel or brass framing.</p><p>　　—Review exterior entrances.</p><p>　　? Manual entrance doors in place of automatic entrances.</p><p>　　? Automatic en

81、trances in lieu of revolving doors.</p><p>　　? Cedar entrance doors rather than mahogany.</p><p>　　—Examine exterior railing systems.</p><p>　　? aluminum or cable systems in lieu of

82、 glass;</p><p>　　? standard designs in place of custom elements; </p><p><b>　　ROOFING</b></p><p>　　—Evaluate the specified roofing with alternative materials.</p>

83、<p>　　? Combined metal decking/insulation systems in lieu of separate systems.</p><p>　　? Interior batt insulation in place of rigid roof insulation.</p><p>　　? Built-up roofing vs. single

84、 ply membranes.</p><p>　　? Fiberglass or concrete tiles in lieu of clay tiles.</p><p>　　? Painted metals in place of copper.</p><p>　　? Can the specified gauge of metal roofing be l

85、owered?</p><p>　　? Eliminate or reduce the guttering system?</p><p>　　? Can skylights be reduced or styles changed?</p><p>　　? Are standard warranties specified?</p><p>

86、;　　INTERIOR CONSTRUCTION</p><p>　　—Examine interior wall systems.</p><p>　　? Can light gauge metal-framed walls be used in lieu of concrete masonry units?</p><p>　　? Can wall thickn

87、esses or gauges be reduced?</p><p>　　? Are drywall systems being used in lieu of plaster? Examine interior doors and hardware.</p><p>　　? Are the specified doors standard sizes or custom?</p&

88、gt;<p>　　? Have alternate wood door species been considered?</p><p>　　? Have alternate hardware styles or manufacturers been compared?</p><p>　　? Can manual doors be used in lieu of autom

89、atic?</p><p>　　? Are the doors pre-machined for hardware installation?</p><p>　　? Compare pre-finishing doors with finishing on-site.</p><p>　　—Review interior specialties.</p>

90、;<p>　　? Have alternate types of toilet partitions been considered?</p><p>　　? Prefinished metals vs. plastic laminates.</p><p>　　? Can vinyl corner guards be used rather than metal?</

91、p><p>　　? Metal lockers vs. wood.</p><p>　　? Have special partitions been evaluated?</p><p>　　? Plastic veneers in lieu of wood.</p><p>　　? Can the sound rating be reduced

92、?</p><p>　　? Defer installation?</p><p>　　? Has the access flooring system been evaluated?</p><p>　　? Standard floor finishes rather than custom?</p><p>　　INTERIOR FINI

93、SHES</p><p>　　—Evaluate interior wall finishes.</p><p>　　? Painted wall finishes in lieu of wallcovering.</p><p>　　? Epoxy coatings in place of tile finishes.</p><p>　　

94、? FRP instead of stainless steel.</p><p>　　? Are textured drywall systems being used rather than plaster?</p><p>　　—Examine interior floor finishes.</p><p>　　? Resilient flooring vs

95、. ceramic or wood.</p><p>　　? Ceramic flooring in lieu of stone.</p><p>　　? Tile or stone in place of terrazzo.</p><p>　　? Alternate carpet manufacturers.</p><p>　　—Rev

96、iew alternate ceiling finishes.</p><p>　　? Standard ceiling vs. custom.</p><p>　　? Fiber ceiling vs. metal.</p><p>　　CONVEYING SYSTEMS</p><p>　　—Review specified elevat

97、ors and escalators.</p><p>　　? Have alternate manufacturers been considered?</p><p>　　? Are standard interior elevator cab finishes specified or custom?</p><p>　　? Can glass walls b

98、e eliminated?</p><p>　　? Are standard warranties specified?</p><p>　　SITE PREPARATION</p><p>　　? Has a site work analysis been performed to balance cuts and fills.</p><p&

99、gt;　　SITE IMPROVEMENTS</p><p>　　? Can paved areas be reduced or more economical paving materials used?</p><p>　　? Has resurfacing existing parking areas been considered rather than new parking c

100、onstruction?</p><p>　　? Have alternate types of enclosure walls been considered?</p><p>　　? Have landscaping alternatives or substitutions been considered?</p><p>　　? Seeding in pla

101、ce of sodding.</p><p>　　? Reduce or change tree and plant materials.</p><p>　　? Use existing trees and other existing landscaping.</p><p>　　SITE CIVIL/MECHANICAL UTILITIES</p>

102、<p>　　? Have alternate utility piping materials been evaluated?</p><p>　　? Can existing site utilities be abandoned rather than removed?</p><p>　　SITE ELECTRICAL UTILITIES</p><

103、p>　　? Have alternate exterior lighting packages been compared?</p><p>　　? Have alternate utility piping materials been evaluated?</p><p>　　CONTRACTOR OVERHEAD AND PROFIT</p><p>　

104、　? Can phasing be reduced to shorten the project duration?</p><p>　　? Can the start of the project be timed to avoid cost impact of winter conditions?</p><p>　　? For high-rise projects; have cra

105、ne and hoisting options been compared?</p><p>　　? Can the Owner include the Builders Risk policy?.</p><p>　　Breaking down and analyzing the components of a building project through the work brea

106、kdown structure can aid in reduction summaries also reveal that the mechanical, electrical and plumbing(MEP) systems typically offer the greatest opportunity for cost savings due to their total significance to a project.