丹麥peter_svensson_教授關于英文論文寫作和發(fā)

1、寫在前面的話,2006年4月5日，著名國際口腔醫(yī)學專業(yè)雜志 J Oral Rehabil的主編Peter Svensson 教授，應王美青教授的邀請前來我院進行國際合作研究，并應邀作了題為 How to write and publish papers in Dentistry 的專題報告。經Svensson教授允許，特將其講演幻燈提供給大家，希望對大家有所幫助。王美青2006－04－10,How to write and pub

2、lish papers in Dentistry –A personal perspectivePeter SvenssonProfessor, DDS, PhD, Dr Odont,,Essentials in dental research,Understand the scientific processThinkPlanDoReportCommunicate the scientific resultTalk

3、Write,Important obligation !,“All research, to be generally useful, must ultimately be presented as a written document”,What is science ?,From Latin “Scientia” To know, to discern, to distinguishSystematised knowledge

4、 from observation, study, and experimentation carried out in order to determine the nature or principles of what is being studied (social, natural, biomedical, etc.),What is scientific ?,ScientificDesignating the method

5、 of research in which a hypothesis, formulated after systematic, objective collection of data, is tested empirically,What science should be !,UniversalUnrelated to individual researcher (personal, social, ethnical, reli

6、gious, political factors)Same principles within different disciplines (engineering, medical, social etc. – also dentistry),What science should be !,ScepticalRaises questions to be answered through stringent research me

7、thods (logical, critical, consistent),What science should not be,Simple gathering of informationDistinguish from learningTransportation of factsNeeds interpretation of the facts and data“Listing facts, statements and

8、 knowledge is not enough”,Rummaging for informationMore than checking information for self-enlightenment“Finding out prizes on crowns in Aarhus”Catchword to get attentionOften misused in advertisements“Years of rese

9、arch have produced a new dentifrice”,What science should not be,Characteristics of good science,Starts with a question or problemRequires a clear articulation of a goalFollows a specific plan or procedureDivides the p

10、roblem into more manageable sub-problemsGuided by specific problems, questions or hypothesisAccepts critical assumptionsRequires collection and interpretation of dataIs cyclical or helical,1. Identify the question or

11、 problem,Many unanswered questions and unresolved problemsLook around - observe - wonderBe curious Ask questionsWhy?What is the cause of that?What does it mean?,1. Identify the question or problem,Nobel prize winne

12、r in medicine - Eric KandelObserved changed function of memory in psychiatric patientsAsked why is the brain working differently?How is memory stored in the brain cells? (synaptic transmission - signal transduction),R

13、eview the literature,You need to have background knowledge to approach your own research problemMaybe it is only a problem to you !,Review the literature,Purpose of the review 1Reveal investigations similar to your own

14、Show how other researchers have handled methodological and design issuesDescribe methods to deal with problem situations that you are facingReveal sources of data that you may not have known existedIntroduce you to k

15、ey persons whose work you may not have known,Review the literature,Purpose of the review 2Help to see your own study in historical perspectiveGive you new ideas and approachesHelp to evaluate your own research efforts

16、 by comparison to similar efforts of othersIndicate the time and effort previously put into your research topic,Practical advice to search,Use e.g. Pubmed and search the literature - haste slowly - and readIdentify 2-3

17、 central, high-quality review papers - and readRead papers most closely related to your research topic and then gradually expand,http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov./entrez/query.fcgi,Pick others brains !FriendsSupervisorsEx

18、pertsSenior faculty membersContact authors to key-papersImportant verbal information can be obtained from meetings, conferences and personal interactions,Practical advice to search,2. Clear articulation of a goal,Impo

19、rtant to state the problem in a clear, unambiguous way“What do you intend to do?”“The aim of this project is to ...”,The mother test !,3. Specific plan or procedure,Hoping to find something, or that data will be “pop

20、ping up” is not a good start“l(fā)et us see what we will find or just go ahead and do it”Planning the research effort is important“define the strategy to get data and what to do to them”,3. Specific plan or procedure,Choo

21、sing the design and method with care and logic“different questions need different methods”“engineering questions may not be answered by sociological research designs”“sociological questions may not be answered by engi

22、neering methods”,Reminder,“Researchers should remember that the task before us is to answer the research question, not to revalidate our methodology.”,Besag 1986,Reminder,“The question should determine the methodology. T

23、he methodology should not determine the question.”,Besag 1986,4. Manageable sub-problems,The research problem or question may be too big or complex to solve without breaking down into logical subproblems - structuralizat

24、ionMain problem, e.g.“How do I come from Aarhus to Xi’an?”Sub-problems“Where is Xi’an?”“What is the most direct/fast route?”“How do I proceed from airport?”“What train number?”Etc…..,5. Hypothesis,Greek “Groundw

25、ork, foundation”An unproved theory, proposition, supposition tentatively accepted to explain certain facts or provide a basis for further investigationsHypotheses are not new or purely academic constructs, but reasonab

26、le guess - logical supposition,6. Accepts critical assumptions,Research has assumptionsGeometry has axiomsSelf-evident truths - conditions that need to be taken for granted,6. Accepts critical assumptions,Define and st

27、ate the assumptions necessary for your hypothesis, e.g.“Women have lower pain thresholds than men”Both groups have same interest / motivation to faithfully report their experienceThe examiner is capable of performance

28、 an accurate testThe test method is sensitive enough to discriminate between the groups,7. Collection and interpretation of data,Collection of data is the first stepData are objectiveInterpretation of the data is the

29、next - and necessary - stepData need to go through the human brain to get a meaning !Interpretation is subjective,Two important aspects of data,ValiditySoundness, effectiveness of the measuring instrumentWhat does th

30、e test measure?Does it measure what it is supposed to be measured?How well, how accurately does it measure?ReliabilityConsistency of the measurementHow well can you measure something again and again?,Validity and re

31、liability,Perfect reliability+ Perfect validity,Perfect reliability+ Bad validity,Bad reliability+ Bad validity,Statistics,Helps to describe and interpret the data setDescriptive statisticsPoints of central tende

32、ncy (mode, mean, median etc)Measures of variation (quartile range, SD, SEM, variance)Measures of relationship (Pearson product moment, Spearman rank-order etc)Inferential statisticsPredictions - estimationsHypothesi

33、s testing (t-test, Wilcoxon, Mann-Whitney, Friedman, ANOVA, regression analysis etc),8. Cyclic or helical nature,Summary,The science needs to be good in order to write a good scientific paper,Scientific writing,Writing a

34、s thinking Writing is a great way to discover what we are thinkingStart writing as soon as possible The only version that counts is the last onePaper is patience, but uncritical !,Different means to present science,S

35、cientific writingOriginal / full research reportsShort communicationsCase storiesTopical reviewsSystematic reviews / meta-analysisBooks or book chaptersAcademic thesisConference abstracts,Different means to prese

36、nt science,Oral presentationsShort communicationPlenary lectureSeminarsCourses,Different means to present science,Public relationsMedia - press releaseInternet,Scientific papers,Consider where to publishImpact fac

37、tors - impactRelevance - scope of journalAudience - readersTime – review - publication,Impact factors,Measure of the frequency of which the ”average article” in a journal has been cited in a particular yearCites to r

38、ecent articles / number of recent articles,http://isi3.isiknowledge.com,Impact factor,Suggested as a simple, descriptive quantitative measure of a journal’s performanceFounded by Eugene Garfield – Institute for Scientif

39、ic Information (ISI)Science Citation Index (SCI) now includes more than 3700 journals and even more are tracked (not yet included),Impact factor,General belief”The higher IF, the better journal”Researchers keen to sub

40、mit to high-impact journalsEditors of high-impact journals are ”swamped” with manuscriptsFunding agencies expect researchers to publish in ”the best” journals,Problems with impact factor,Coverage and language preferenc

41、e of the SCI databaseProcedures to collect citations at the ISIAlgorithm to calculate the IFCitation distribution of journalsOnline availability of publications,Problems with impact factor,Citations to invalid articl

42、esNegative citationsPreference of journal publishers for articles of a certain typePublication lagCiting behavior across subjectsInfluence from journal editors,Alternatives to impact factors,Journal to Field Impact

43、 FactorAdjusted Impact FactorCited half-life Impact FactorMedian Impact FactorDisciplinary Impact FactorPrestige Factor,What does the IF measure?,Measure the average citation rate of all ”citable” articlesHelps aut

44、hors to decide which journals to submit toHelps editors and publishers to assess the journals”Simply reflects the ability of journals and editors to attract the best papers available”,What does IF not measure?,Does not

45、 measure the quality of individual articlesOnly measures the ”interests” of other researchers but not the ”importance” and ”usefulness”,In addition to IF also consider,Scope of the journalActual circulation numbers / d

46、istribution and potential readershipTime from submission to publication,Time,Short communications of most recent researchNormally immediately prior to publication of data in full research paperFeedbackFaster distribu

47、tion of newsFast track publications (“hot topics”)Online Early – publication ahead of printed version,Scientific papers,Note on style (IMRAD)IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsand Discussion,Author guidelines

48、,Check very carefully the instruction to authorsPrint out a recent paper from the journalRemember copyright forms etc.www.blackwellmunksgaard.com/jor,Stepwise writing a paper,Title pageAbstractIntroductionMaterials

49、 and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferencesAcknowledgementsFiguresFigure legendsTables,Title,Authors,Affiliations,Correspondingauthor,Date,General lay-out,Double spacedPage numberUse spell-checkerKeep as a tidy as

50、 possibleUse paragraphs and subheadingsConsistent use of terms / words and abbreviations,Notes on authorships,All must have contributed to the scientific processOtherwise consider to mention in AcknowledgementsRule o

51、f thumb1. Author: Most work2. Author: Second most workLast author: Senior author,Notes on authorships,Decide very early in the process who will be first, second and last author and who will be corresponding author,Nat

52、ure. 2003 Oct 23;425(6960):805-11. The DNA sequence and analysis of human chromosome 6.Mungall AJ, Palmer SA, Sims SK, Edwards CA, Ashurst JL, Wilming L, Jones MC, Horton R, Hunt SE, Scott CE, Gilbert JG, Clamp ME, Be

53、thel G, Milne S, Ainscough R, Almeida JP, Ambrose KD, Andrews TD, Ashwell RI, Babbage AK, Bagguley CL, Bailey J, Banerjee R, Barker DJ, Barlow KF, Bates K, Beare DM, Beasley H, Beasley O, Bird CP, Blakey S, Bray-Allen S,

54、 Brook J, Brown AJ, Brown JY, Burford DC, Burrill W, Burton J, Carder C, Carter NP, Chapman JC, Clark SY, Clark G, Clee CM, Clegg S, Cobley V, Collier RE, Collins JE, Colman LK, Corby NR, Coville GJ, Culley KM, Dhami P,

55、Davies J, Dunn M, Earthrowl ME, Ellington AE, Evans KA, Faulkner L, Francis MD, Frankish A, Frankland J, French L, Garner P, Garnett J, Ghori MJ, Gilby LM, Gillson CJ, Glithero RJ, Grafham DV, Grant M, Gribble S, Griffit

56、hs C, Griffiths M, Hall R, Halls KS, Hammond S, Harley JL, Hart EA, Heath PD, Heathcott R, Holmes SJ, Howden PJ, Howe KL, Howell GR, Huckle E, Humphray SJ, Humphries MD, Hunt AR, Johnson CM, Joy AA, Kay M, Keenan SJ, Kim

57、berley AM, King A, Laird GK, Langford C, Lawlor S, Leongamornlert DA, Leversha M, Lloyd CR, Lloyd DM, Loveland JE, Lovell J, Martin S, Mashreghi-Mohammadi M, Maslen GL, Matthews L, McCann OT, McLaren SJ, McLay K, McMurra

58、y A, Moore MJ, Mullikin JC, Niblett D, Nickerson T, Novik KL, Oliver K, Overton-Larty EK, Parker A, Patel R, Pearce AV, Peck AI, Phillimore B, Phillips S, Plumb RW, Porter KM, Ramsey Y, Ranby SA, Rice CM, Ross MT, Searle

59、 SM, Sehra HK, Sheridan E, Skuce CD, Smith S, Smith M, Spraggon L, Squares SL, Steward CA, Sycamore N, Tamlyn-Hall G, Tester J, Theaker AJ, Thomas DW, Thorpe A, Tracey A, Tromans A, Tubby B, Wall M, Wallis JM, West AP, W

60、hite SS, Whitehead SL, Whittaker H, Wild A, Willey DJ, Wilmer TE, Wood JM, Wray PW, Wyatt JC, Young L, Younger RM, Bentley DR, Coulson A, Durbin R, Hubbard T, Sulston JE, Dunham I, Rogers J, Beck S.The Wellcome Trust S

61、anger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK. ajm@sanger.ac.uk,Multiple authors !,Stepwise writing a paper,Title pageAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionRefer

62、encesAcknowledgementsFiguresFigure legendsTables,Logical structureProvide sufficient details,Comments,Already at this stage of the manuscript it may useful to get feedback from co-authors / supervisors,Stepwise wri

63、ting a paper,Title pageAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferencesAcknowledgementsFiguresFigure legendsTables,Writing the Results,Presentation of the dataFrom the problem (subproblems)

64、 follows the dataLogic is imperativeComplete presentation (tables, figures, appendices)Test of hypotheses (confirmation-rejection),Presentation of ANOVA results,There were no main effects of gender on pain thresholds

65、(ANOVA: F = 2.345, P = 0.566) but a significant effect of time (ANOVA: F = 5.655, P = 0.023) and a significant time x gender effect (ANOVA: F = 7.432, P = 0.001). Thus, pain thresholds weres significantly lower after tre

66、atment compared to baseline values for women (Tukey: P = 0.023) but not for men (Tukey: P = 0.345).,Sufficient details to allow understanding without reading the main text,KISS !,Comments,At this stage of the manuscript

67、it is definitely useful to get feedback from co-authors / supervisors,Stepwise writing a paper,Title pageAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferencesAcknowledgementsFiguresFigure legends

68、Tables,Writing the Introduction,Description of the problemIntroduce and set the stage for the naïve readerReader must be able to understand the problem from this report onlyProvide rationale and backgroundEmphas