外文翻譯--商業(yè)環(huán)境檢測中的信息獲取扎根理論研究法（節(jié)選）

1、<p>　　中文7000漢字,4400單詞，25000英文字符</p><p>　　出處：Zita C, Wilson T D. Scanning The Business Environment For Information: a Grounded Theory approach[J]. Information Research An International Electronic Journal

2、, 1997, 2(4):242-242.</p><p>　　Scanning the business environment for information: a grounded theory approach</p><p>　　Introduction</p><p>　　This paper summarizes the principal findi

3、ngs of research that sought to provide a comprehensive understanding of the environmental scanning process. The methodology used was of major importance in obtaining data that are grounded largely in the personal experie

4、nce of managers, but also in documentary evidence and in direct observation by the researcher. The purpose of the study was to investigate how managers in the Portuguese chemical industry scan their environment for infor

5、mation, what are th</p><p>　　Methodology and research design</p><p>　　Methodology</p><p>　　In the context of this research, the case study was considered appropriate for providing a

6、 holistic approach to the study of environmental scanning in industrial organizations operating in the chemical industry. In creating the case study, several types of data and information were collected, including genera

7、l data about the industry and specific information about the companies that agreed to participate. </p><p>　　The data about the companies included:</p><p>　　formal data concerning the chara

8、cter of the company (official designation, address, telephone and fax number, name of the managing director, SIC code of the main industry, sales volume, number of workers, social capital and distribution, type of owners

9、hip) obtained through the two business databases consulted, Dun & Bradstreet and MOPE (Informação para Gestão de Empresas);</p><p>　　publicly available data provided by the annual reports

10、of the companies, promotional material and newsletters;</p><p>　　historical and cultural information provided by the managers interviewed, either orally - as an introductory part of the interview - or in pri

11、nted form, when available, as well as organizational charts.</p><p>　　All this information was of great importance to contextualize and illuminate the core data regarding the environmental scanning phenomeno

12、n in the companies analyzed. Not all cases, however, provided equally rich frameworks.</p><p>　　Strauss (1987) emphasizes the usefulness of the case study approach when used with grounded theory. Grounded th

13、eory seeks to generate theoretical statements and, ultimately, complex theories based on empirical evidence, although it can be used in different ways and reach various degrees of complexity. The research design framewor

14、k adopted in this study can be described as a multiple case study, composed according to the theory building structure, as described by Yin (1989), i.e., where the seque</p><p>　　Research design<

15、;/p><p>　　The sample used in this study did not obey the principles of statistical sampling, but the principles of maximum variation sampling, as defined by Patton (1990) and those of theoretical

16、 sampling, as defined by Strauss and Corbin (1990), i.e., sampling on the basis of concepts that have proven theoretical relevance to the evolving theory. Our sample incorporated nineteen companies: five small

17、companies (with more than 10 and less than 99 workers), ten medium-size companies (with up to 399 workers</p><p>　　The main tool used for collecting the core data for this research was the semi-structured in

18、terview, a tool flexible enough to favouring adaptation to each context, organization and individual, and also to pursuing unexpected paths and cues suggested by the theoretical sensitivity (Glaser & Straus

19、s,1967) developed by the researcher throughout the research process. </p><p>　　Forty seven interviews were carried out, although seven of them - the so-called "complementary interviews" -

20、 did not account for statistical purposes. These interviewees were not questioned about the issues approached in the interview schedule, but about other related issues that needed to be clarified; Table 1 details the job

21、 titles of all the interviewees, as well as the number of interviewees by job title.</p><p>　　Observation played a minor, but non-negligible role. Visits to the premises, including the factory plants in some

22、 cases, meals in the canteens of some of the organizations, attention paid to the way-of-doing-things in the several companies - how visitors were announced, how meetings were scheduled and cancelled, absence or frequenc

23、y and type of interruptions in the course of the interviews, degree of formality or informality in interpersonal relations - contributed to consolidate impressions or </p><p>　　Conceptual framework: the cate

24、gories and the model</p><p>　　The information that emerged out of the data provides an empirical basis for the articulation of a grounded theory of environmental scanning. The articulation of the theory impl

25、ies the identification and description of a set of categories and relationships, which explain a significant part of the phenomenon under study. Those categories and relationships must be clearly defined and easily measu

26、rable, and the theory itself should be meaningful for both organizational theorists and information sci</p><p>　　Table 1 - Number, N, Of Interviewees By Job Titles</p><p>　　(* Refers to top

27、 managers performing the roles of chief executives, general directors or managing partners. ** These jobs were grouped together because there was an overlapping of functions in many cases. *** These job title

28、s correspond, in one of the cases, to the function of planning director and, in the other case, to a commercially-oriented responsibility. The brackets denote complementary interviews that were not included in the statis

29、tics) </p><p>　　The grounded theory proposed comprises three main components: the categories (the core category and the subsidiary categories), the principal relationships 

30、among them, and the contextual factors that shape the categories and relationships. From an internal perspective, these factors include corporate history and culture. From an external perspective, these co

31、ntextual factors include the overall economic, social, cultural and political conditions that characerize modern Portugal and shape, at lea</p><p>　　The model of organization implied by the theory is that of

32、 an open system. The components that make up the grounded theory are shown in Figure 1.</p><p>　　The core category identified was that of environmental scanning, to which a set of subsidiary catego

33、ries was related. Environmental scanning refers to the exposure to and acquisition of "information about events and relationships in a company's outside environment, the knowledge of which would assist top-manag

34、ement in its task of charting the company's future course of action." (Aguilar, 1967: 1). This interrelated set of categories contributes to understanding how contextual factors - external </p><p

35、>　　Figure 1- A Model Of The Environmental Scanning Process </p><p>　　Research findings</p><p>　　The external context</p><p>　　Perceived environmental change</p><p

36、>　　External factors perceived as causing change in the environment were identified as pertaining to two main categories: the regulatory framework and the business structure. The changes of a regulatory

37、nature were linked to joining the EC and to government intervention, while the changes of a business nature were linked to the trend for concentration in the chemical industry and the crisis of client industrie

38、s. </p><p>　　The analysis of the data regarding managers' perceptipons of environmental change, showed that the impact of joining the EC was evaluated mainly in terms of the changes in the regulator

39、y framework, bringing in new rules and procedures to follow, such as regulations concerning the registration of drugs, the adoption of the patent regime in force in Europe and the demand for higher standards regardi

40、ng product quality. It was also evaluated in terms of the progressive elimination of customs tariffs</p><p>　　The government was accused of excessive intervention in the regulation of the market, especially

41、in the health sector, by approving or rejecting the production of new medicines and by establishing prices of the medicines; the policy of high interest rates practiced by the banking system was another negative issue, w

42、hich was blamed upon the government, as most of the banks were nationalized when the field-work was carried out and high interest rates were in fact part of the government policy to k</p><p>　　Changes in the

43、 business structure were described as multifold, due to the acquisitions and mergers taking place, and also to the disappearance of smaller companies that sank under the pressure of competition, as a result of

44、the trend for concentration that prevails in the chemical industries at large, especially in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics sub-sectors, and also in the segments of resin-derived products and synthetic fibre products.

45、An important factor of instability was said to be the cr</p><p>　　The assessment of the environmental attributes showed that the environment had become extremely hostile and rather complex, even though turbu

46、lence was thought to stay relatively low. The comparative analysis of results regarding environmental change, obtained through the assessment of environmental attributes and through the analysis of perceptions of environ

47、mental change, evidenced compatible results. </p><p>　　On the other hand, the advent of the Single Market was seen as inevitable and was faced predominantly with a moderate degree of optimism, as i

48、t was widely believed that the worst had passed, meaning that the adaptation process to the Common Market had been hard enough and that something positive could still be expected from the Single Market, like keeping mark

49、et shares or conquering a niche market or realizing a successful alliance. Plans of internationalization did not go further than Spain in </p><p>　　Strategic change</p><p>　　More than any other

50、factor, the changeability of the environment proved to be determinant in the rejection of tight planning schemes, while the size of the company influences the adoption of planning (larger companies tend to engage in plan

51、ning) but other factors interfere with that tendency, such as the form of the organization and the management style or the dominant culture. There emerged no evidence that industrial segments or sub-sectors might influen

52、ce the adoption of planning as a managem</p><p>　　Strategic change in the companies analyzed revolved mainly around increasing product quality, which involved in some cases the improvement of the conditions

53、of production and was associated, in specific cases of highly pollutant industries, with measures of environment protection. Other important changes of strategic nature were internationalization and diversification, purs

54、ued by dynamic companies enjoying a steady growth trend. Growth through acquisitions was pursued by companies targeting int</p><p>　　Increasing product quality was a generalized target. However, some compani

55、es made clear that they had always pursued quality, while others admitted that they had to improve the quality of their products and the conditions of production in order to satisfy EC regulations. This concern was parti

56、cularly acute among the companies of the plastics sub-sector and the large manufacturers in declining industries, such as the chlorine producer and the synthetic fibre manufacturer. In this last case, fear </p>&l

57、t;p>　　The companies that opted to specialize were in the paints and in the pharmaceutical sub-sectors, where multi-national companies have dominated for decades, hence the need to seek product and market niches not co

58、vered by the giant corporations. An option made in these conditions may be regarded as an adaptive behaviour, but is not necessarily a reactive behaviour. Growth, diversification and internationalization involve complex,

59、 risky and slow processes and are, therefore, more clearly associated</p><p>　　Ansoff (1987) remarks that acquisitions and mergers are major instruments of strategic change and that internationalization and

60、domestic diversification are alternative routes for expanding a company's portfolio. Only three of the companies studied engaged in these actions: a pharmaceutical company which, when the study was carried out, ranke

61、d among the top ten companies operating in this country and in this sub-sector; a paints company ranking among the 300 major companies operating in Portugal</p><p>　　The organizational context</p><

62、;p>　　Conditions affecting scanning</p><p>　　Internal factors influencing the scanning activity were identified as being of an individual nature - information conciousness and individual exposure to inform

63、ation - and of an organizational nature - outwardness and information climate.</p><p>　　Information conciousness was assessed through the attitude of top managers towards environmental scanning and through t

64、he communication pattern established among managers within each organization. All the interviewees agreed about the vital role of information in business. Top managers of large and medium-size companies operating in diff

65、erent sub-sectors described their role, as far as environmental scanning is concerned, as a mix of personal monitoring and dissemination of information among dir</p><p>　　Communication is generally intense b

66、etween the top manager and the functional directors, and among functional directors. Communication among managers is made up of a mix of oral information and written information; the nature of this mix and the reasons th

67、at determine the choice of either of the forms of communication was not entirely clarified. However, some evidence associates the choice of oral communication with the generic scope of the information or its potential fo

68、r starting action. Chief</p><p>　　The information climate was assessed through the information infrastructure implemented, i.e., the processes, technologies and people used in information acquisition an

69、d handling. Most of the pharmaceutical companies had rich, centralized collections of scientific and technical information, managed by information professionals with different backgrounds, offered access to international

70、 on-line systems and provided selective dissemination of information and loan services. However, the other compa</p><p>　　The pervasiveness of information was pointed out as one of the reasons why it is so d

71、ifficult to account for the costs involved in environmental scanning, as it is always associated with the performance of specific roles. The data collected point to an average of 50% of staff involved in information hand

72、ling in the medium to large pharmaceutical companies. Smaller companies have few resources to invest and different needs as well; an average of 9% of staff was found to be involved in information</p><p>　　Th

73、e outwardness of the organizations was assessed through their links with R&D organizations, the collaboration with regulatory agencies and participation in development programmes. Apart from two multinational pharmac

74、eutical companies that developed fundamental research, the remaining companies either developed applied research, independently or in association with research organizations, or did not develop research at all. This was

75、the case of large companies operating in declining industries </p><p>　　Large and medium size companies enjoying relative economic health engage in collaborative actions with a view to influencing legislativ

76、e and other regulatory initiatives, usually through their sectoral associations, sometimes regional or international bodies. This collaboration, however, is generally passive, i.e., companies tend to act only under

77、request. Companies of the same size going through a crisis tend to turn inwards for reorganization. Smaller companies, on the other hand, usually lack</p><p>　　Most of the successful applications submitted t

78、o development programmes, with relevance for PEDIP, were directed to productive investments and training, this last item being funded either through PEDIP or through the European Social Fund. </p><p>　　

79、Managers' exposure to information was assessed through the development of their information networks. Training opportunities provided by the organization to other ranks of staff was used as an additional way of asses

80、sing the exposure to information throughout the organization. The performance of the liaison role by chief executives and other managers consists largely in the setting up of their external information system. Access to

81、important sources of information is reached through the appointm</p><p>　　Exposure to information emerged in this study as the individual face of the broader phenomenon of organizational outwardness, and pro

82、ved to be difficult to detach and analyze on its own. This was determined, to a great extent, by the decision to target the organization as the unit of analysis. </p><p>　　Organizational culture emerged

83、 as an important factor in the analysis of information issues within organizations. The data available indicate that the type of information culture that prevails in pharmaceutical companies is a formal information cultu

84、re. Two other companies in two different sub-sectors were identified as having an oral culture and an information concious culture, respectively. </p><p>　　Strategies for managing scanning<

85、/p><p>　　The segmentation of the external information environment used in our study was largely based on that used by Goshal (1985), including competition (information concerning competitors, including their ac

86、tions, decisions, strategies, plans, weak and strong points), market (all the information concerning markets, except competitor issues, clients' needs and preferences, distribution channels, reaction to promotion, ma

87、rket potential, etc.), technology (all the information concerning present and poten</p><p>　　Managers consider competitor information very important, very difficult to obtain and use it very frequently; mark

88、et information is also considered very important, it is used very frequently, and is found to be relatively difficult to obtain. Information on technology is considered relatively important, is used relatively frequently

89、, and it is considered difficult to obtain. Information on resources is considered relatively important, is used relatively frequently, and it is not so difficult to </p><p>　　Factors that affect the choice

90、of internal or external sources are the size of the company and the complexity of the organizational structure. Chief executives of larger companies tend to make use of the company's information infrastruct

91、ure in order to obtain the external information that they do not obtain by themselves, since, in a complex organization structure, the division of tasks is clear and the chief executive's time is precious. In smaller

92、 companies, entrepreneurs often perform other r</p><p>　　Another factor that influences the preference given by managers to internal or external sources is the predominance of certain types of information cu

93、lture, or the inexistence of an information culture. The lack of an information culture, and the subsequent small investment in the information infrastructure, may lead to the establishment of direct contacts with extern

94、al information sources, even when the company is large and has established complex and formal internal procedures for communicatio</p><p>　　The functional role played also influences the choice of internal o

95、r external sources. Marketing or commercial directors, R&D directors and some managing directors (those directing small companies or those directing large companies where an oral culture dominates or where no informa

96、tion culture exists) give usually preference to external sources. On the other hand, financial and administrative directors or other senior staff such as planning directors, whose roles are mostly inward oriented, or <

97、;/p><p>　　Internal sources are viewed by some managers as filters and by others as contaminators of the information provided by external sources. The concept of internal sources as filters has a positive connot

98、ation, since internal sources are attributed an important role, that of selecting relevant information, thus saving the chief executive 's time. On the other hand, the concept of internal sources as contaminators of