計算機專業(yè)外文翻譯---建立一個信息管理系統(tǒng)

1、<p>　　建立一個信息管理系統(tǒng)</p><p>　　在行政管理機構(gòu)信息是個重要資源。及時有效的重要信息對于高效管理職能的表現(xiàn)是至關重要的，例如準備，組織，領導，控制。在一個管理機構(gòu)中，信息系統(tǒng)就像是人體中的神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)，它把組織的所有元件連接在一起而且還在競爭的環(huán)境中提供更好的操作和生存機會。</p><p>　　信息系統(tǒng)經(jīng)常提及一個以計算機為基礎的，被設計成支持組織的操作、經(jīng)營和

2、決策功能的系統(tǒng)。在組織中信息系統(tǒng)為決策者提供信息支持。信息系統(tǒng)包含交易處理系統(tǒng)、管理信息系統(tǒng)、決策支持系統(tǒng)和戰(zhàn)略的信息系統(tǒng)。</p><p>　　信息由經(jīng)過處理的而且是對用戶是有用的數(shù)據(jù)組成。一個系統(tǒng)是為了達成一個共同的目的共同操作的一組元件。因此一個管理信息系統(tǒng)收集，傳送，處理，儲存，而且在組織資源、程序表和成就上儲存數(shù)據(jù)。系統(tǒng)進入經(jīng)營信息之內(nèi)為這些數(shù)據(jù)做合理的變換為決策者在組織里面的使用。因此，一個管理信息系

3、統(tǒng)提供支持組織管理職能的信息。</p><p><b>　　一、基本的概念</b></p><p>　　1、數(shù)據(jù)和信息的比較</p><p>　　數(shù)據(jù)提供未加工的、不被評估的事實數(shù)據(jù)、符號、物件、事件等等。數(shù)據(jù)可能是一個在于儲存事實的集合物件，像一個電話目錄或者實施統(tǒng)計調(diào)查記錄。</p><p>　　信息是那些已經(jīng)進入一

4、個有意義的，有用的背景而且傳達到一個使用它做出決斷的接受人的數(shù)據(jù)。信息涉及智慧或知識的交流和接受。它評價而且通知，吃驚而且刺激，減少不確定，現(xiàn)實另外可供選擇的方案或者幫助去除無關的或者沒用的信息，還影響人們并且鼓勵他們做出行動。數(shù)據(jù)的元素在一個特殊的背景下可能構(gòu)成一條信息；例如，當你想聯(lián)系你的朋友的時候，他或者她的電話號碼就是一條信息；除此之外，它在電話號碼薄里僅僅是一個數(shù)據(jù)的元素。</p><p><b&

5、gt;　　2、信息的特性</b></p><p>　　好信息的特性是中肯的、時間性、準確性、成本效益、可靠性、可用性、無遺漏和凝聚層次。如果它引導改良的決策，信息是有關的。如果它重新確定之前的決定它也是有關的。如果它對你的問題沒有任何幫助那它就是無關的。例如，如果你在一月考慮去巴黎，那有關巴黎一月的天氣情況的信息對你來說就是有關的。否則，這信息就是無關的。</p><p>　　

6、時間性涉及到信息的流通呈現(xiàn)給使用者。數(shù)據(jù)或信息的流通性是事件發(fā)生到它呈現(xiàn)給用戶（決策者）之間的時間缺口。如果這個合計時間很短，我們說這個信息系統(tǒng)是一個即時系統(tǒng)。</p><p>　　準確性是通過對數(shù)據(jù)和實際事件的比較而被測量的。準確無誤的數(shù)據(jù)的重要性隨著需要做出決斷的型態(tài)而改變的。工資總支出信息必須是精確地。簡單的近似值是不能滿足需要的。不過對于全體員工的時間有多少是專注于特定的活動需要一個大致的估算，這是不可或

7、缺的。</p><p><b>　　3、信息的價值</b></p><p>　　在決策的制定上信息有著重要的作用，因此它的價值緊緊系在使用它所做出的決斷上。信息沒有一個絕對的萬用價值。它的價值關系到使用它的人們，當它被用，和在什么情況下被用。在這個意義上，信息跟其它的商品有相似之處。例如，對于一個在撒哈拉沙漠的人來說一杯水的價值就超過了一個在北極冰川迷路的人。<

8、/p><p>　　經(jīng)濟學家從招致生產(chǎn)或者獲得商品的一個商品的成本或者價格來辨別價值。很顯然，產(chǎn)品的價值肯定比它的成本或者價格高讓它變得有成本效益。</p><p>　　信息的標準價值的概念已經(jīng)被經(jīng)濟學家和統(tǒng)計家發(fā)展而且它起源于決斷理論。這個理論的基本前提是我們總是有一些與我們的決斷相關的發(fā)生的事件的初步了解。額外的信息可能修改我們對事情發(fā)生或然率的觀點，因此改變我們的決定并且期望決定取得成功。

9、因此，額外的信息的價值是通過減少將來的事件的不確定性而獲得預期結(jié)果的差額。</p><p>　　信息支持決定，決定觸發(fā)動作，而動作影響組織的成就或績效。如果我們可以測量出績效中的差額，我們就可以追蹤信息的影響力，進而可以假設測量小心地被執(zhí)行，在變數(shù)之中的關系定義得好，而且不相關因素的可能結(jié)果被孤立。由于信息的因素，績效標準的差額叫做信息的現(xiàn)實價值或者顯示價值。</p><p>　　對于大部

10、分的信息系統(tǒng)來說，特別是那些支持中層和最高管理部門的人們，產(chǎn)生的決斷時常與不嚴格被定義而且包括不能夠被定量的或然率的事件有關。決策程序時常是模糊的，而且結(jié)果因多重的、無比的大小而依比例決定的。在一些情況下，我們可能嘗試執(zhí)行一個多屬性分析或者得到一個大體上主觀的價值。主觀的價值反映了人們對于信息的綜合印象和他們愿意為特定信息支付的價值（Ahituv, Neumann, & Riley, 1994）。</p><

11、p>　　4、對于決策來說信息是一個助手</p><p>　　西蒙（1977）把決策的程序說成是包含四個階段： 智力、設計、選擇和評論。智力階段包含與組織和它的環(huán)境有關的數(shù)據(jù)的集合物件、分類、加工和說明。這對于識別環(huán)境需求的決策是很重要的。在設計階段期間，決策者提出可供選擇的方案，每個解決方案都包含一系列需要被執(zhí)行的動作。在智力階段被收集的數(shù)據(jù)現(xiàn)在被統(tǒng)計，其他的模型為每一個選擇預測可能發(fā)生的結(jié)果。每一個選擇也

12、要從技術可行性、行為可行性和經(jīng)濟可行性方面去檢驗。在選擇階段，決策者必須要選擇出一個對組織的目標貢獻最大的方案。經(jīng)過選擇可以讓經(jīng)理受制于實施和監(jiān)聽期間并且從錯誤中學習。信息在決斷程序的所有的四個階段中扮演著重要的角色。</p><p>　　5、管理信息系統(tǒng)的分類</p><p>　　管理信息系統(tǒng)有多種類型。梅森和斯旺森（1981）把管理信息系統(tǒng)分為四個類型：（1）數(shù)據(jù)庫信息系統(tǒng)，（2）預言

13、性的信息系統(tǒng)，（3）制定決策的信息系統(tǒng)，（4）決策執(zhí)行的信息系統(tǒng)。這個分類是以在決策制定的過程中信息系統(tǒng)可以提供的支持程度為基礎的。Sachdeva（1990）綜合地呈現(xiàn)了這四種類型：</p><p>　　數(shù)據(jù)庫信息系統(tǒng)。這類信息系統(tǒng)的責任是觀察，分類而且存儲那些對決策者可能有用的任何數(shù)據(jù)項目。</p><p>　　預言性的信息系統(tǒng)。這一個系統(tǒng)隨著時間的過去超越純粹的數(shù)據(jù)收集和傾向的決定。

14、 預言性的信息系統(tǒng)為與做出決策相關的推論和先前預測的事物提供制圖。如果上述的例子會被這樣用，那么為先前預測或者畫理論圖獲得有用的信息就是可能的。</p><p>　　制定決策的信息系統(tǒng)。這個系統(tǒng)距離決策制定的程序更近一步，而且它包含組織系統(tǒng)的價值或這它是各種可供選擇的方案的選擇標準。一個組織的額外價值有很多而且形式多樣。它們包括解決農(nóng)民問題，增加和規(guī)定了農(nóng)民的基本收入，提高農(nóng)民的生活質(zhì)量的焦慮。但是她們也包含、規(guī)

15、定了 農(nóng)民的基本收入和改善農(nóng)民的生活質(zhì)量。但是他們也含一個為職員好好地提供（訓練、適當?shù)男浇?，等等）意圖和在鄉(xiāng)下的經(jīng)濟發(fā)展的程序中提供援助的意圖。 </p><p>　　決策執(zhí)行的信息系統(tǒng)。決策執(zhí)行的信息系統(tǒng)的例子在擴充的組織中是不容易被找到的。在信息系統(tǒng)中它是一個決策系統(tǒng)而且決策者只有一個而且是同一個。對于系統(tǒng)本身，它基本上可以削弱它增加動作的權(quán)利，因此在這個系統(tǒng)中，當假設被結(jié)合的時候，經(jīng)營是如此的自信。飛機加

16、載的自動飛行系統(tǒng)就是決策執(zhí)行系統(tǒng)的一個案例。一旦飛機被啟動，系統(tǒng)自身就會保持飛機在正確的方向上，以適當?shù)乃俣群透叨龋ㄒ勒诊w行員決定的參數(shù)）飛行。另外一個決策執(zhí)行信息系統(tǒng)的例子是在調(diào)制解調(diào)器工廠的生產(chǎn)中被應用。在汽車生產(chǎn)中，通過計算機汽車零配件的清單被連續(xù)不斷的保存就像汽車移動走的流水線一樣。當其他部分需要零配件的時候，計算機就會自動的下命令。這是不需要管理者的介入的。</p><p>　　二、在農(nóng)業(yè)擴充的管理計劃

17、中MIS的角色</p><p>　　國家的擴充系統(tǒng)，尤其是在發(fā)展中國家，一般傾向于很龐大。例如，在印度，國家的農(nóng)業(yè)延伸系統(tǒng)雇傭了大約125000人。在不同層次擴充的管理者需要相關的信息來做出高效的決策。如果缺少了這些信息，那么他們的決策也僅僅是依據(jù)他們的最基本的直覺和以往的經(jīng)驗。那些經(jīng)過處理，存儲和合理出現(xiàn)的數(shù)據(jù)會輔助他們分析問題和做出高效的決定。</p><p>　　就像上面所建議的那樣

18、，在每一個管理程序的過程中，管理者需要信息去幫助他們做出高效的決策。這樣的信息我們叫做管理信息。它不包含純粹功能上的信息或者技術上的信息，像是大米或者小麥耕種的常規(guī)軟件包。管理信息是管理者必須的信息，就像他們做出決定，比如按類別要擴充的人員就業(yè)的數(shù)目，他們的培訓要求，職業(yè)發(fā)展規(guī)劃，工作說明，預算，預測，基點審視，報道被服務的人們的社會經(jīng)濟狀況，和目前的設備（Ramesh Babu & Singh, 1987）。</p>

19、;<p><b>　　三、需要自動化</b></p><p>　　一個自動化的信息管理系統(tǒng)包含的數(shù)據(jù)僅僅像是由手工系統(tǒng)做出來的。它接收輸入，加工輸入，和遞送像輸出一樣的加工輸入。當其他的要求數(shù)據(jù)被記錄在一個輸入媒介比如磁性材料（特別地涂上一層的塑料易曲的或軟式磁盤和磁帶）上時一些輸入設備允許直接的人機交互。直接地被連接到一部計算機的工作區(qū)的鍵盤就是直接輸入設備的一個例子。自動化

20、的使用讓存儲大量的信息變得有可能，而且還避免了找到他們手工記錄的路徑時的錯誤，還有那些在人工系統(tǒng)中實際上是不可能比較和計算的錯誤。</p><p><b>　　四、數(shù)據(jù)庫的組織</b></p><p>　　數(shù)據(jù)通常是經(jīng)過交易處理系統(tǒng)在欄位層次上產(chǎn)生的，但是一旦信息被取得，假如信息需求已經(jīng)很好的被定義，適當?shù)某绦虮硪呀?jīng)被執(zhí)行，而且一個方法已經(jīng)被安排為共享數(shù)據(jù)，那么任何組

21、織領導層的延伸階層都可以使用它們。這就暗示著同一個數(shù)據(jù)可以同時被多個不同集合的程序表所使用；因此，我們可以看出數(shù)據(jù)（數(shù)據(jù)的集合）和應用（程序的集合）的區(qū)別。在一個決策支持系統(tǒng)（DSS）中，一系列的程序集是模型的基礎（Keen &Morton，1978）</p><p>　　期間數(shù)據(jù)庫可能提及可以為一個機構(gòu)內(nèi)各部門服務的數(shù)據(jù)集合。在給定的題目上的數(shù)據(jù)庫是一個數(shù)據(jù)集合，在那個給定的題目上要遵循三個準則：廣泛性

22、（完整性）、非冗余的、和適當?shù)慕Y(jié)構(gòu)。廣泛性意味著所有關于數(shù)據(jù)的題目都在數(shù)據(jù)庫中實際出現(xiàn)過。非冗余意味著早數(shù)據(jù)庫中每個獨立的數(shù)據(jù)條只存在唯一一次。適當?shù)慕Y(jié)構(gòu)意味著數(shù)據(jù)用一種像是使最小預期加工和存儲成本的方法進行存儲(Awad & Gotterer, 1992).。</p><p>　　能夠靈活的被那些應用程序或者樣板基層共享的大型企業(yè)的數(shù)據(jù)庫的想法已經(jīng)被那些軟件包特別是執(zhí)行如此認為的軟件包所了解。這些被叫做

23、數(shù)據(jù)庫管理系統(tǒng)（DBMSs）的包在不同商品名稱下面的市場中都是可得的，比如ORACLE, SYBASE, INGRES, FOXBASE, and dBASE. </p><p>　　五、以計算機為基礎說明的MIS</p><p>　　一個國家農(nóng)業(yè)擴充系統(tǒng)是被國家政府管理的全國范圍的系統(tǒng)。在印度，在全國性和狀態(tài)層次之間的權(quán)力分割之下，農(nóng)業(yè)是一個政府話題。然而，國家政府補充財政資源的狀態(tài)而且

24、在國家的層次上提供調(diào)和。政府的行政機構(gòu)被劃分為區(qū)域，區(qū)域進入細分之內(nèi)，進入?yún)^(qū)塊之內(nèi)的細分。一個區(qū)塊是一組村莊的集合，也是農(nóng)業(yè)擴充程序表管理的基本單位。在區(qū)塊層次收集的數(shù)據(jù)需要在高級的管理層次被整合，在區(qū)域和州的層次上提供一個整合的意見用以支持計劃、監(jiān)聽和決策制定。</p><p>　　然而，實際的設計可能會隨著政府的大小和其他因素而改變。為了整個的政府，一個整合的數(shù)據(jù)庫可能在政府總部被一個主機/迷你計算機所支持。

25、為了數(shù)據(jù)的分析，適當?shù)某绦虮砜赡鼙辉O計成在狀態(tài)層次提供交互式?jīng)Q策支持系統(tǒng)。根據(jù)要處理的數(shù)據(jù)的容量，每個區(qū)域和細分有可能具有一臺迷你/微計算機。在區(qū)域和細分的計算機很有可能與政府計算機同屬于一個網(wǎng)絡。在區(qū)域/細分本地數(shù)據(jù)可能被存儲和處理，而被共享的數(shù)據(jù)可能會以適當程度的聚合被傳送到政府總部更新整合的數(shù)據(jù)庫。區(qū)域和細分會通過他們的密碼使用指定給他們的適當?shù)臋?quán)限直接訪問整合的數(shù)據(jù)庫。區(qū)塊可能只使輸入-輸出終端機被連接到細分計算機為區(qū)域提供數(shù)據(jù)

26、，有必要的時候作為在線查詢。</p><p>　　Establishing a management information system</p><p>　　Information is a critical resource in the operation and management of organizations. Timely availability of relevant

27、 information is vital for effective performance of managerial functions such as planning, organizing, leading, and control. An information system in an organization is like the nervous system in the human body: it is the

28、 link that connects all the organization's components together and provides for better operation and survival in a competitive environment. </p><p>　　The term information system usually a computer-based

29、system, one that is designed to support the operations, management, and decision functions of an organization. Information systems in organizations thus provide information support for decision makers. Information system

30、s encompass transaction processing systems, management information systems, decision support systems, and strategic information systems. </p><p>　　Information consists of data that have been processed and ar

31、e meaningful to a user. A system is a set of components that operate together to achieve a common purpose. Thus a management information system collects, transmits, processes, and stores data on an organization's res

32、ources, programmes, and accomplishments. The system makes possible the conversion of these data into management information for use by decision makers within the organization. A management information system, therefore,

33、prod</p><p>　　Basic concepts</p><p>　　Data versus Information </p><p>　　Data refers to raw, unevaluated facts, figures, symbols, objects, events, etc. Data may be a collection of f

34、acts lying in storage, like a telephone directory or census records. </p><p>　　Information is data that have been put into a meaningful and useful context and communicated to a recipient who uses it to make

35、decisions. Information involves the communication and reception of intelligence or knowledge. It appraises and notifies, surprises and stimulates, reduces uncertainty, reveals additional alternatives or helps eliminate i

36、rrelevant or poor ones, and influences individuals and stimulates them to action. An element of data may constitute information in a specific context; f</p><p>　　Characteristics of Information </p>&l

37、t;p>　　The characteristics of good information are relevance, timeliness, accuracy, cost-effectiveness, reliability, usability, exhaustiveness, and aggregation level. Information is relevant if it leads to improved dec

38、ision making. It might also be relevant if it reaffirms a previous decision. If it does not have anything to do with your problem, it is irrelevant. For example, information about the weather conditions in Paris in Janua

39、ry is relevant if you are considering a visit to Paris in January. Ot</p><p>　　Timeliness refers to the currency of the information presented to the users. Currency of data or information is the time gap bet

40、ween the occurrence of an event in the field until its presentation to the user (decision maker). When this amount of time is very short, we describe the information system as a real-time system. </p><p>　　A

41、ccuracy is measured by comparing the data to actual events. The importance of accurate data varies with the type of decisions that need to be made. Payroll information must be exact. Approximations simply will not suffic

42、e. However, a general estimate of how much staff time was devoted to a particular activity may be all that is needed. </p><p>　　Value of Information </p><p>　　Information has a great impact on d

43、ecision making, and hence its value is closely tied to the decisions that result from its use. Information does not have an absolute universal value. Its value is related to those who use it, when it is used, and in what

44、 situation it is used. In this sense, information is similar to other commodities. For example, the value of a glass of water is different for someone who has lost his way in Arctic glaciers than it is to a wanderer in t

45、he Sahara Desert. </p><p>　　Economists distinguish value from cost or price of a commodity incurred to produce or procure the commodity. Obviously, the value of a product must be higher than its cost or pric

46、e for it to be cost-effective. </p><p>　　The concept of normative value of information has been developed by economists and statisticians and is derived from decision theory. The basic premise of the theory

47、is that we always have some preliminary knowledge about the occurrence of events that are relevant to our decisions. Additional information might modify our view of the occurrence probabilities and consequently change ou

48、r decision and the expected payoff from the decision. The value of additional information is, hence, the differenc</p><p>　　Information supports decisions, decisions trigger actions, and actions affect the a

49、chievements or performance of the organization. If we can measure the differences in performance, we can trace the impact of information, provided that the measurements are carefully performed, the relationships among va

50、riables are well defined, and possible effects of irrelevant factors are isolated. The measured difference in performance due to informational factors is called the realistic value or revealed valu</p><p>　　

51、For most information systems, particularly those supporting middle and top management, the resulting decisions often relate to events that are not strictly defined and involve probabilities that cannot be quantified. The

52、 decision-making process often is obscure and the outcomes are scaled by multiple and incomparable dimensions. In such cases, we may either attempt to perform a multiattribute analysis or derive an overall subjective val

53、ue. The subjective value reflects people's comprehensive imp</p><p>　　Information as an Aid to Decision Making </p><p>　　Simon (1977) describes the process of decision making as comprising f

54、our steps: intelligence, design, choice, and review. The intelligence stage encompasses collection, classification, processing, and presentation of data relating to the organization and its environment. This is necessary

55、 to identify situations calling for decision. During the decision stage, the decision maker outlines alternative solutions, each of which involves a set of actions to be taken. The data gathered during the intel</p>

56、;<p>　　Classification of Management Information Systems </p><p>　　There are various types of management information systems. Mason and Swanson (1981) describe four categories of management information

57、 systems: (1) databank information system, (2) predictive information system, (3) decision-making information system, and (4) decision-taking information system. The classification is based on the level of support that t

58、he information system provides in the process of decision making. Sachdeva (1990) comprehensively presents these four types of systems: </p><p>　　Databank Information System. The responsibility of this infor

59、mation system is to observe, classify, and store any item of data which might be potentially useful to the decision maker.</p><p>　　Predictive Information System. This system moves beyond pure data collectio

60、n and the determination of trends over time. Predictive information systems provide for the drawing of inferences and predictions that are relevant to decision making. If data from the above examples were to be used in t

61、his way, it is possible to obtain information useful for making predictions or for drawing inferences. </p><p>　　Decision-Making Information System. This system goes one step further in the process of decisi

62、on making and incorporates the value system of the organization or its criteria for choosing among alternatives. An extension organization's values are many and varied. They include concerns for resolving farmer prob

63、lems, increasing and providing for stability of farmer incomes, and improving the quality of farm life. But they also including and providing for stability of farmer incomes, and improving t</p><p>　　Decisio

64、n-Taking Information System. Examples of decision-taking information systems are not usually found in an extension organization. This is a decision </p><p>　　system in which the information system and the de

65、cision maker are one and the same. Management is so confident in the assumptions incorporated in the system that it basically relegates its power to initiate action to the system itself. Airplanes carry automatic pilot s

66、ystems, which are an example of a decision-taking system. Once activated, the system itself keeps the plane on course and at the proper speed and altitude (according to parameters determined by the pilot). Another exampl

67、e of decisi</p><p>　　Role of MIS in the management of agricultural extension programmers</p><p>　　National agricultural extension systems, especially in developing countries, tend to be very lar

68、ge. For example, in India, the national agricultural extension system employs about 125,000 people. Extension managers at various levels need relevant information in order to make effective decisions. In the absence of s

69、uch information, they act only on the basis of their intuition and past experience. Data that have been processed, stored, and presented properly will aid them in analysing situations </p><p>　　As suggested

70、above, at every phase of the management process, managers need information in order to make effective decisions. This we call management information. It does not include purely functional information or technical informa

71、tion, such as packages of practices for rice or wheat cultivation. Management information is the information required by managers as they make their decisions, such as the number of extension personnel employed by catego

72、ry, their training requirements, career develop</p><p>　　Need for automation</p><p>　　An automated MIS system contains data just as a manual system does. It receives input, processes input, and

73、delivers the processed input as output. Some input devices allow direct human-machine communication, while others require data to be recorded on an input medium such as a magnetizable material (specially coated plastic f

74、lexible or floppy disks and magnetic tapes). The keyboard of a workstation connected directly to a computer is an example of a direct input device. Use of automation makes </p><p>　　Organization of a databas

75、e</p><p>　　Data are usually generated at the field level through transaction-processing systems, but once the data are captured, any echelon along the organizational hierarchy may use them, provided that inf

76、ormation requirements have been well defined, appropriate programmers have been implemented, and a means has been arranged for the sharing of the data. This would imply that the same data can be used by different sets of

77、 programmers; hence we distinguish between the database (a set of data) and the appl</p><p>　　The term database may refer to any collection of data that might serve an organizational unit. A database on a gi

78、ven subject is a collection of data on that subject that observes three criteria: comprehensiveness (completeness), nonredundancy, and appropriate structure. Comprehensiveness means that all the data about the subject ar

79、e actually present in the database. Nonredundancy means that each individual piece of data exists only once in the database. Appropriate structure means that the data </p><p>　　The idea of a large corporate

80、database that can be flexibly shared by several applications or model bases has been realized by means of software packages specially devised to perform such tasks. These packages, called database management systems (DBM

81、Ss), are available in the market under different trade names such as ORACLE, SYBASE, INGRES, FOXBASE, and dBASE. </p><p>　　Illustrative computer-based MIS</p><p>　　A national agricultural extens

82、ion system is a nationwide system managed by the national government. In India, agriculture is a state subject under the division of powers between the national and the state levels. Nevertheless, the national government

83、 supplements the financial resources of the states and provides coordination at the national level. The state's administrative machinery is divided into districts, districts into subdivisions, subdivisions into block

84、s. A block is a group of villages </p><p>　　However, the actual design may vary with the size of the state and other considerations. An integrated database for the entire state may be supported by a mainfram

85、e/minicomputer at the state headquarters. Suitable programmes for the analysis of data may be designed to provide an interactive decision support system at the state level. Each district and subdivision may be provided w

86、ith a mini/micro computer, depending on the volume of data to be handled. The computers in the districts and subdivis</p><p>　　References</p><p>　　Ahituv, N., Neumann, S., & Riley, H. N. (19

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