39中英文雙語畢業(yè)設計外文文獻翻譯成品球墨鑄鐵摩擦焊接過程中的微組織與質量傳輸

1、<p>　　The microstructure and mass transport during friction welding of ductile cast iron</p><p>　　Mieczys?aw Kaczorowski</p><p>　　Institute of Mechanics and Design, Warsaw University of Tec

2、hnology, Warsaw, Poland, and</p><p>　　Rados?aw Winiczenko</p><p>　　Department of Production Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, Poland</p><p><b>　　Abstrac

3、t</b></p><p>　　Purpose – The results of a study of friction welding of ductile cast iron using stainless steel interlayer are presented. Based on the microstructure evolution at the region close to the

4、 ductile cast iron-stainless steel interface, the phenomena accompanying the process of joining were evaluated. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to take a closer look into metallurgical phenomena accompanying the

5、friction welding of ductile cast iron.</p><p>　　Design/methodology/approach – In this paper, ductile cast iron and austenitic-stainless steel are welded using the friction welding method. The tensile strengt

6、h of the joints was determined using a conventional tensile test machine. Moreover, the hardness across the interface ductile cast iron-stainless steel interface was measured on a metallographic specimen. The microstruct

7、ure of the joints was examined using light metallography as well as electron microscopy. In this case, scanning electron </p><p>　　Findings – On the basis of careful analysis of experimental data it was conc

8、luded that the process of friction welding was accompanied with diffusion of Cr, Ni and C atoms across the ductile cast iron-stainless steel interface. This leads to an increase of carbon concentration in stainless steel

9、 where chromium carbides were formed, the size and distribution of which was dependent on the distance from the interface. Originality/value – The main value of this paper is to contribute to the literatu</p><

10、p>　　Keywords Friction welding, Ductile cast iron, Mass transport, Stainless steel</p><p>　　Paper type Research paper</p><p>　　1. Introduction</p><p>　　The friction welding is a d

11、ynamic, thermodynamically activated process. According to Crossland (1971) and Healy et al. (1976), the friction welding is a metallurgical process, including the interaction of heat and force. It is accompanied by and c

12、oupled with a series of physical phenomena, heat generated by plastic deformation, cooling of high-temperature metal, dynamic stress-strain process and thermal effect for metal behaviour, etc. It is considered that a hea

13、t generation and sudden temperatu</p><p>　　The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0036-8792.htm</p><p>　　Industrial Lubrication and Tribol

14、ogy</p><p>　　65/4 (2013) 251– 258</p><p>　　q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 0036-8792] [DOI 10.1108/00368791311331248]</p><p>　　such as crystal structure of coupled material

15、s, nature and concentration of diffusion element and number of line and defects (Winiczenko, 2001). In the vicinity of the contact surface, in dislocation zones and area of metal discontinuity or change of the crystal st

16、ructure, diffusion processes change. All the structural imperfections reduce activation energy, which contributes to the acceleration of the diffusion process (Richter and Palzkill, 1985; Dette and Hirsch, 1990).</p&g

17、t;<p>　　It can be doubted if and to what degree the diffusion appears when the process is on an atomic scale and friction welding lasts a few minutes.</p><p>　　The friction welding technique is well k

18、nown and used in practice. Many studies about the friction welding of dissimilar materials have been conducted by various researchers.</p><p>　　Akata and Sahin (2003) investigated the effect of dimensional d

19、ifferences in friction welding of AISI 1040 specimens. Next year, Sahin and Akata (2004) conducted an experimental study on the friction welding of medium carbon and austenitic stainless steel components. Later, Akata et

20、 al. (2007) conducted an investigation into reutilizing of waste materials, using friction welding. Sahin (2009) joined stainless steel and copper materials with friction welding. Sunay et al. (2009) investigated the <

21、;/p><p>　　This work was supported by the Community of Scientific Investigation under Grant 7T08B05519. The authors would also like to thank Professors Eugeniusz Ranatowski and Stanislaw Dymski from the Faculty

22、of Mechanics of Bydgoszcz Technical University for their valuable suggestions.</p><p><b>　　251</b></p><p>　　Friction welding of ductile cast iron</p><p>　　Mieczyslaw Kac

23、zorowski and Radoslaw Winiczenko</p><p>　　The phenomena, accompanying friction welding process are rather poorly documented in the literature: Michiura et al. (1998) studied friction welding of ductile cast

24、iron pipes. Next year, Shinoda et al. (1999) joined cast iron and stainless steels with friction welding. Ogara et al. (2005) examined the relationship between tensile strength characteristics and the macrostructure of j

25、oint in friction-welded ductile cast iron. Ochi et al. (2007/2009) investigated the macrostructure and temperature </p><p>　　2. Experimental</p><p>　　The ferritic ductile cast iron (nominal comp

26、osition listed in Table I) was selected for the study. The specimens for friction welding were bars 20 mm in diameter and 100 mm in length. The surface for friction welding was prepared on the abrasive cut-off machine. T

27、he geometry of specimens used for friction welding and details of experiment was shown in Figure 1.</p><p>　　Schematic drawings of the lap friction welding process are shown in Figure 1. Friction welding of

28、ductile cast iron specimens was carried out, using X6CrNi18-10 stainless steel as an interface layer. The chemical composition of the stainless steel selected for the study is listed in Table II. The process of joining w

29、as carried out on a continuous drive friction machine of the ZT-14 type. Friction and forged pressures used in experiment lie in the range of 20-45 MPa. The spindle rotating speed wa</p><p>　　The microstruct

30、ure of the joints was examined using either light metallography as well as electron microscopy. In this case, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were applied. The first one was

31、performed with a Jeol JSM-5400 scanning electron microscope and the second one with Philips EM300 transmission electron microscope operating at 100 kV accelerating voltage. Energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDS) was carr

32、ied out across the section of friction welded</p><p>　　Table I The chemical composition of ductile cast iron (ferritic of matrix) selected for the study according to EN-GJS 400-15</p><p>　　Indus

33、trial Lubrication and Tribology</p><p>　　Volume 65 · Number 4 · 2013 · 251 – 258</p><p>　　were observed with a BEI COMPO microscope, mode using back scattered electrons (BSE). Thi

34、n foils technique was applied for TEM study. First 3 mm rods were cut perpendicularly to the joining interface at a half-radius distance from the axis of joined specimens. Then 0.1 mm discs were sliced from these rods, u

35、sing “l(fā)oad-less” IF-07A wire saw. Finally, thin foils were thinned electrochemically, using STRUERS automatic equipment.</p><p>　　3. Results</p><p>　　3.1 Tensile tests</p><p>　　The

36、mechanical testing of friction-welded specimen had only additional significance.</p><p>　　Therefore, the specimens used in this experiment were not typical for mechanical testing and the authors wanted to ge

37、t only very approximate information on the tensile strength of the joints and the parameters of friction welding, which would be useful in further experiments. The results of tensile tests are given in Table III. As can

38、be seen from the table, the tensile strength of the friction-welded ductile cast iron with stainless steel interlayer is not satisfactory. The small values lying i</p><p>　　The diagram of changes in experime

39、ntal tensile strength as a function of friction time was shown in Figure 2. It is evident that along an increase in friction time the tensile strength of friction-welded joint increase.</p><p>　　3.2 Hardness

40、 measurements</p><p>　　The results of hardness measurements can be valuable mediate information on the structure in the given place of the specimen. These can also provide some extra information on the distr

41、ibution of the heat produced during the process. The Vickers microhardness distribution in specimens on the both side of ductile cast iron-stainless steel interface is shown in Figure 3. The measurements were made either

42、 in the axis, or along the line located 2.5 mm from the periphery joined specimens. As it could </p><p>　　3.3 The EDX spectrometry results</p><p>　　Even in earlier papers: Michiura et al. (1998)

43、, Shinoda et al. (1999), Winiczenko (2001), Ogara et al. (2005), Ochi et al. (2007/2009), Song et al. (2008), Sunay et al. (2009) and Nakamura et al. (2010), the authors have paid attention to many phenomena, taking plac

44、e during the friction welding of ductile cast iron with stainless steel. Mass transport across the interface is one of these phenomena. The second one is severe plastic deformation in both materials, but especially in st

45、ainless steel.</p><p>　　The most outstanding result of Figure 4 analysis is that the chromium concentration which is high in stainless steel</p><p><b>　　252</b></p><p>　

46、　Figure 1 Shape and size of specimens (unit-mm) before friction welding</p><p>　　Ductile cast iron</p><p>　　gradually decreases in ductile iron. The depth of ductile cast iron enrichment with ch

47、romium extends to about 40-50 mm. Moreover, it should be noted that the distribution of chromium is very non-homogenous and typically the peaks of Cr correspond with the peaks of Fe. However, the analysis of Ni distribut

48、ion is more difficult and risky; it might be suggested that the average level of concentration of nickel in</p><p>　　ductile cast iron close to the interface appears to be a little higher than in further reg

49、ions.</p><p>　　3.4 Structure investigations</p><p>　　Figure 5 shows an example of the stainless steel microstructure close to joining interface observed in SEM. It is very well visible that the

50、grain boundaries are decorated with the carbides which</p><p><b>　　253</b></p><p>　　Figure 2 Relationship between friction time and tensile strength of ductile cast iron joints</p

51、><p>　　Figure 3 Hardness distributions of friction welded joints of ductile cast iron-stainless steel</p><p>　　form almost continuous chains of precipitates. Such distribution of the carbides is ve

52、ry dangerous, because they are very hard and brittle, so precipitates can dramatically decrease the ductility of the material. As it can be suspected, these particles are most probably chromium carbides, which grew at th

53、e expense of Cr atoms in solid solution. This process involves mostly the grain boundary regions and results in chromium decrease much below the critical value. This, in turn, can lead to inter-</p><p>　　The

54、 next micrographs (Figure 6) show the results of TEM observations. First of them (Figure 6(a)) presents the structure of stainless steel very close to the interface (x ¼ 0.25 mm). Very thin microtwins and high densi

55、ty dislocation loops are visible (note 120,000 magnification).</p><p>　　The dislocation structure (Figure 6(b)) and highly-magnified subgrain boundary (Figure 6(c)) are shown in the next micrographs.</p&g

56、t;<p>　　Figure 6(b) shows dislocation trapped at very small precipitates and/or at subgrain boundaries. Dark field electron micrograph the Moir’e contrast (Thomas and Goringe, 1979), reveals many precipitates loca

57、ted at the subgrain boundary (Figure 6(c)), which is a preferred place for diffusion, as well as for nucleation processes. Further, the dislocations were rearranged into a low energy structure (Figure 6(d)).</p>&

58、lt;p>　　Three examples of the stainless steel structure close to ductile cast iron interface were shown in Figure 7.</p><p>　　4. Discussion</p><p>　　At the very beginning, the phenomena, accom

59、panying the friction welding process will be considered. It should be discussed, what happened in stainless steel at the moment when forging was stopped (that means, at the moment when both materials: ductile cast iron a

60、nd stainless steel, were plastically deformed). The severe plastic deformation was accompanied by formation of microtwins (Figure 6(a)) and dislocations. The dislocations will tend to form low energy dislocation structur

61、e (Figure 6(b)) b</p><p><b>　　254</b></p><p>　　Figure 4 The energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis</p><p><b>　　FeKa, 377</b></p><p><b

62、>　　NiKa, 14</b></p><p><b>　　(a)</b></p><p><b>　　–20 µm</b></p><p>　　Notes: (a) The distribution of elements on both sides of the interface; (b)

63、 backscattered electron (BSE) SEM image; (c) the EDS spectrum obtained from area (1), shows the presence of Cr and C; (d) the EDS spectrum obtained from area (2) shows the presence of Fe and Cr</p><p>　　fric

64、tion welding enabled for “l(fā)ong” range diffusion. In case of almost pure iron or low-carbon structural steel it would lead to formation of pearlite layer only in some regions of steel adjacent to interface. In opposite to

65、 this, diffusion of carbon atoms into stainless steel would promote chromium carbides formations which are of different size and depend on the</p><p>　　distance from interface. The large one is located mostl

66、y at the grain boundaries (Figures 5 and 6(c)). This is because grain boundaries are preferred nucleation sites and provide the ways for easy diffusion. The hard and brittle chromium carbides located at grain boundaries

67、can deteriorate the mechanical properties of material and, probably, this was one of the</p><p><b>　　255</b></p><p>　　Figure 5 Carbide eutectics of the about 2.5 mm from the welded s

68、urface in austenitic matrix</p><p>　　Figure 6 TEM micrograph showing the structure in stainless steel area at different distances from the ductile cast iron-stainless steel interface</p><p><

69、b>　　ab</b></p><p>　　x 20,000x 19,000</p><p>　　reasons of the non-satisfactory strength of the joints (Table III). As it was mentioned before, the chromium carbides grew at the expense

70、 of the chromium content in the matrix. This process causes the decreasing of Cr content below the critical value close to the grain boundaries. Such distribution of chromium carbide can result in intercrystalline corros

71、ion and in case of load application can lead to stress corrosion cracking. The formation of chromium carbides was confirmed indirectly by non-u</p><p>　　It will be considered now, what happened at the opposi

72、te side of the interface, that is in ductile iron. Simultaneously with the diffusion of carbon from ductile cast iron into stainless steel, the diffusion of Cr and Ni atoms into ductile iron appear. It could be expected

73、that because of the great difference between the atomic radius of C, Cr and Ni and mechanism of these elements diffusion, the diffusion range of Cr and Ni in ductile cast iron should be much smaller than the diffusion of

74、 C or </p><p><b>　　256</b></p><p>　　x 15,000x 60,000</p><p>　　Notes: (a) Fine chromium carbides in ductile iron at the distance of 0.12mm from interface</p><

75、p>　　(£ 15,000); (b) fine carbides inside ferrite lamellas in pearlite at the distance of about 0.28mm from ductile iron – stainless steel interface ( × 60,000)</p><p>　　of chromium. Very small,

76、rather cubic than plate-like, precipitates appear in the first micrograph (Figure 7(a)). Their size lies in the range of 250-300 nm, and their density was evaluated as 4 £ 1017 m2 3. As followed from the interpretat

77、ion of many electron diffraction patterns, one of which is shown in Figure 8, these carbides create Cr23C6 type carbides. It should be mentioned that the carbides had the same orientation with respect to the matrix, what

78、 suggested that they are probably cohere</p><p>　　region – in ferrite plate – except from Cr23C6 carbides, also Cr3C2 type carbides, although much smaller, were identified (Winiczenko, 2001).</p><

79、p>　　5. Conclusion</p><p>　　The results of the study presented in this paper have documented that the process of ductile cast iron friction welding is accompanied by the high plastic deformation and diffus

80、ion processes. High temperature of the friction welding process leads to the formation of continuously changing dislocation and grain structure. The diffusion velocity, although this process lasts relatively shortly, is

81、high enough to permit travelling of carbon atoms into material of low carbon concentration. In case of </p><p>　　Figure 8 The structure of the ductile cast iron close to the interface</p><p><

82、;b>　　ab</b></p><p><b>　　x 150,000</b></p><p>　　Notes: (a) Selected area of electron diffraction pattern from small carbides; (b) magnified picture of small carbides</p&g

83、t;<p><b>　　257</b></p><p>　　Friction welding of ductile cast iron</p><p>　　Mieczyslaw Kaczorowski and Radoslaw Winiczenko</p><p>　　References</p><p>

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