反思學(xué)習(xí)的評(píng)估【外文翻譯】

1、<p><b>　　畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）</b></p><p><b>　　外文翻譯</b></p><p>　　Assessing reflective learning</p><p>　　Tom Bourner</p><p>　　The author</p><p

2、>　　Tom bourner is Professor of Personal and Professional Development in Brighton Business School,University of Brighton, Brighton, UK.</p><p><b>　　Keywords</b></p><p>　　Higher edu

3、cation, Assessment, Critical path analysis, Learning styles, Thinking styles </p><p><b>　　Abstract</b></p><p>　　The purpose of this paper is to identity the main problems in assessin

4、g reflective learning and to seek ways of tackling them。Lessons are sought from HE's long engagement with critical thinking that can be transferred to reflective learning. A solution to the problem is offered that is

5、 based on a questioning approach to reflective learning.In so doing,the paper explores the nature of reflective learning and advances the idea that the distinction between "surface" and "deep" learnin

6、g can be gener</p><p>　　Electronic access</p><p>　　The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/resrarchregister</p><p>　　The current

7、 issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0040-0912.htm </p><p>　　Introduction</p><p>　　The purpose of this paper is to identify the main problem

8、s in assessing reflective learning and to propose how they might be resolved. In so doing, the paper looks at the nature of reflective learning and the reasons for assessing reflective learning. The core strategy of the

9、paper is to look at what we can learn from the assessment of critical thinking that is transferable to the domain of reflective learning. First, however, it is necessary to establish the significance of reflective learni

10、ng </p><p>　　Over the last decade, reflective learning has made increasing inroads into the HE curriculum. Recognition of the accelerating pace and impact of technological change, economic change and social

11、change has created awareness of the need for graduates to be lifelong learners. Insofar as HE seeks to prepare students for work and for life it increasingly seeks to develop their capacity for lifelong learning. Lifelon

12、g learning can be partitioned into planned learning and unplanned learning. Much learn</p><p>　　Reflective learning has become increasingly important in postgraduate programmes, where reflective learning is

13、often combined with taught and research elements. According to the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAAHE): Progression within postgraduate study has traditionally implied an increasingly narrow, and increa

14、singly research-dependent deepening of knowledge in a specific field. The Harris Review … however, noted that the distinction between taught, research and reflective ele</p><p>　　This is particularly true in

15、 those academic disciplines most closely related to higher professional learning such as nursing and education. In those areas, Schon’s notion of the “reflective practitioner” has been very influential (Schon, 1983). In

16、those areas, a HE normally seeks to develop reflective practitioners.</p><p>　　Another tributary bringing reflective learning into the HE curriculum is the work of educational development units in universiti

17、es and other institutions of HE. This work has expanded rapidly over the last decade (Gosling, 2001). A core element of the work is the provision of courses for staff development in teaching and supporting student learni

18、ng. A recent survey of the promotional literature on these courses suggested that the conceptual underpinnings of these courses were dominated by two id</p><p>　　Whether HE is preparing students for lifelong

19、 learning, delivering CPD to experienced practitioners or preparing academics for teaching in HE, the role of reflective learning is increasing.</p><p>　　This paper looks at problems in assessing reflective

20、learning arising from the subjective nature of the knowledge outcomes of reflective learning, seeks lessons from HE’s long engagement with critical thinking and offers a solution based on a questioning approach to reflec

21、tive learning.</p><p>　　Why assess reflective learning?</p><p>　　It is important to assess reflective learning to be able to provide feedback to students and to be able to certify that students

22、have developed the capacity to learn through reflection.</p><p>　　If a learning outcome of a course is to develop the capacity for reflective practice then assessment is necessary for certification that the

23、learning outcomes have been achieved. If a significant part of the purpose of a course of HE is to produce reflective practitioners, then it is difficult to know if the course is achieving its purpose unless reflective l

24、earning is assessed.</p><p>　　If reflective learning is not assessed it is most likely to be neglected. Assessment has been described as “the tail that wags the dog”. Attention follows assessment and behavio

25、ur follows attention. Most students pay most attention to what is assessed. That which is not assessed is most likely to be most neglected.</p><p>　　Within the academy assessment confers legitimacy. The acad

26、emy is reluctant to accredit that which cannot be assessed. A good recent example of this principle is the accreditation of work-based learning within HE (Brennan and Little, 1996). The accreditation of work-based learni

27、ng has followed the development of forms of assessment of work-based learning; the legitimacy of work-based learning in HE depended on its accreditation. Until relatively secure methods of assessment for work-based learn

28、in</p><p>　　What are the main obstacles to assessing reflective learning?</p><p>　　The main impediment to assessing reflective learning is that a significant and variable proportion of the learn

29、ing outcomes of reflection is subjective knowledge rather than objective knowledge. Only the person doing the reflection can assess whether learning has occurred that is significant to them. However, the notion of secure

30、 assessment implies some form of evaluation against an independent standard. If the rest of the world is to find the assessment useful, the standard of assessment must b</p><p>　　There is another related obs

31、tacle that impedes assessment of reflective learning. Assessment normally involves a judgement of the extent to which planned learning outcomes have been achieved by students. Reflection is the process of turning experie

32、nce into learning and that learning is emergent rather than planned. It is difficult to specify, a priori, planned learning outcomes for a process that yields emergent learning outcomes. In the absence of planned learnin

33、g outcomes there is nothing agai</p><p>　　Faced with these two substantial obstacles to the assessment of reflective learning the strategy of this paper is to look for a way forward by transferring ideas fro

34、m the area which has been well thought-through in HE, the domain of critical thinking.</p><p>　　What can we learn from critical thinking?</p><p>　　In 1991, Sir Douglas Hague, who was chair of th

35、e Economic and Social Research Council for much of the 1980s, wrote that critical thinking, the ability to judge ideas and evidence, is the primary aim of HE:Academics must believe that acquiring the ability to test idea

36、s and evidence is the primary benefit of a university education (Hague, 1991, p. 64). </p><p>　　This statement is probably an accurate reflection of the view of most university academics during most of the t

37、wentieth century. Certainly the majority would have agreed with the proposition that a hallmark of a university graduate is that they have well-honed critical faculties.</p><p>　　An implication is that we ha

38、ve a great deal of experience in detecting the presence or absence of critical thinking in assessing the work of students. How do we recognise the presence of critical thinking when we are assessing students’ work? What

39、is the evidence of critical thinking that we look for in assessing the work of students?</p><p>　　Traditionally, we have looked for evidence that the student has asked searching questions of the material wit

40、h which they have engaged and of their own ideas. What sort of searching questions does critical thinking imply? Table I contains a dozen questions that we might recognise as the tools of the critical thinker in the proc

41、ess of interrogating ideas, evidence and assertions.</p><p>　　When we assess student work and we spot evidence of the use of these sorts of questions we can reasonably conclude that the student has developed

42、 the capacity for critical thinking.</p><p>　　The rest of this paper addresses the question: can we transfer this approach from the assessment of critical thinking to the assessment of reflective learning? I

43、n other words, we are looking for correspondence between the generic processes of critical thinking and reflective learning.</p><p>　　The first step is to notice the difference in terminology between “critic

44、al thinking” and “reflective learning”. We rarely speak of “critical learning” or “reflective thinking”. Noticing this different use of language allows us to make the adjustment in our pursuit of parallels; from now on w

45、e will be looking for similarities between “critical thinking” and “reflective thinking”.</p><p>　　Replacing the term “reflective learning” by “reflective thinking” is also important, because it separates ou

46、t the process of reflection (i.e. reflective thinking) from the content of that thinking and it is the subjective nature of the content that is a major barrier to the assessment of reflective learning.</p><p&g

47、t;　　When a person interrogates some past experience by asking searching questions of that experience they are thinking about it reflectively. Simply reviewing what happened does not constitute reflective thinking; it is

48、as possible to review an experience unreflectively as it is to read a book uncritically.</p><p>　　Just as the process of critical thinking implies asking searching questions, so the process of reflective thi

49、nking implies asking searching questions. What distinguishes reflective thinking about an experience from unreflective thinking is the process of interrogating the experiencing with searching questions. What sort of sear

50、ching questions do reflective thinkers use to interrogate their experience? Table I comprised a set of questions of the kind that characterise critical thinking; Table II </p><p>　　When we assess student wor

51、k and we spot evidence of the use of these sorts of questions we can reasonably conclude that the student has developed the capacity for reflective thinking.</p><p>　　In other words, the solution to the prob

52、lem of assessing reflective learning proposed in this paper is to base it on evidence of the capacity to interrogate experience with searching questions. As is the case when we assess the capacity for critical thinking,

53、sometimes those questions will be explicit and sometimes they will be implicit in the students’ work.</p><p>　　How does this solution deal with the obstacles to the assessment of reflective learning: the sub

54、jective nature of reflective learning and the absence of prior learning outcomes against which to assess reflective learning which is emergent rather than planned.</p><p>　　Although the content of reflective

55、 learning may be subjective, the process of reflective learning is not. This is because: the core of the reflective learning process is interrogating experience with searching questions; and we can identify searching que

56、stions independently of the content of the reflection. Reflective learning is not what happens to a student, it is what the student does with what has happened. When we assess reflection it is important that we do not as

57、sess the content of an exp</p><p>　　There is a parallel here with project work. Students are often allowed to select the topic content of their own projects and, despite this, we still feel confident in mark

58、ing their project reports. This is because we are assessing the processes employed in undertaking the project as evidenced in project reports rather then the project content per se. In terms of the education of students,

59、 we are more concerned with how they did it than the content of the project outcomes. Likewise with reflectiv</p><p><b>　　反思學(xué)習(xí)的評(píng)估</b></p><p>　　Tom Bourner</p><p><b&g

60、t;　　作者</b></p><p>　　英國(guó)布萊頓商業(yè)學(xué)校個(gè)人職業(yè)發(fā)展教授Tom Bourner</p><p><b>　　關(guān)鍵字</b></p><p>　　高等教育 評(píng)定 關(guān)鍵路徑分析 學(xué)習(xí)風(fēng)格 思考風(fēng)格</p><p><b>　　摘要</b></p><p

61、>　　這篇論文的目的是在評(píng)估反思學(xué)習(xí)方面進(jìn)行主要問題的鑒別和尋找抓住主要問題的方法。從男孩帶著評(píng)判性思維進(jìn)行長(zhǎng)期約會(huì)獲得的經(jīng)驗(yàn)教訓(xùn)，可以作為反思學(xué)習(xí)。解決這個(gè)問題的方法已被提供，它是以問答策略為基礎(chǔ)的反思學(xué)習(xí)。這樣做，論文探討了自然反思學(xué)習(xí)，并提出了這樣的看法：“表面學(xué)習(xí)”和“深度學(xué)習(xí)”之間的區(qū)別可以歸納到反思學(xué)習(xí)領(lǐng)域。它以一些關(guān)于反思學(xué)習(xí)發(fā)展的含義為結(jié)束。</p><p><b>　　電子通道&

62、lt;/b></p><p>　　這個(gè)期刊的翡翠研究登記從http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister 獲得</p><p>　　這個(gè)期刊的當(dāng)前問題和全文檔案網(wǎng)址：http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0040-0912.htm 獲得</p><p><b>　　介紹</b&

63、gt;</p><p>　　本文件的目的是確定評(píng)估反思性學(xué)習(xí)中的主要問題，并提出可能如何解決。在這樣做時(shí)，紙看的性質(zhì)反思性學(xué)習(xí)和評(píng)估反思學(xué)習(xí)的理由?？纯次覀兛梢越梃b的是轉(zhuǎn)移到反思學(xué)習(xí)的域的批判性思維的評(píng)估文件的核心戰(zhàn)略。第一次，但是，有必要建立高等教育 （他） 今日 （星期五） 反思學(xué)習(xí)的重要意義。</p><p>　　十年反思性學(xué)習(xí)取得了何課程增加進(jìn)入。加快步伐的識(shí)別和技術(shù)變革、 經(jīng)濟(jì)的

64、變化和社會(huì)變革的影響已創(chuàng)建畢業(yè)生成為終身學(xué)習(xí)者的需要的認(rèn)識(shí)。只要他旨在培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的工作和生活越來(lái)越多地致力于發(fā)展終身學(xué)習(xí)的能力。終身學(xué)習(xí)可以分成計(jì)劃的學(xué)習(xí)和計(jì)劃外的學(xué)習(xí)。多跨壽命的學(xué)習(xí)是計(jì)劃外、 經(jīng)驗(yàn)和急診。這種學(xué)習(xí)的關(guān)鍵是打開經(jīng)驗(yàn)學(xué)習(xí) （1985年債券等人） 的思考。若要了解如何學(xué)習(xí)能力開發(fā)的一部分發(fā)展反思性學(xué)習(xí)的學(xué)生的能力。</p><p>　　反思性學(xué)習(xí)已經(jīng)成為越來(lái)越重要的研究生課程，通常與結(jié)合反思學(xué)習(xí)教和研

65、究元素。根據(jù)質(zhì)量保證局高等教育 (QAAHE)：在研究生研究進(jìn)展傳統(tǒng)上已隱含知識(shí)特定字段中一個(gè)越來(lái)越窄，越來(lái)越多地依賴于研究的深化。哈里斯進(jìn)展 … … 然而，注意到這種區(qū)分之間教，研究和研究生研究的反思元素變得模糊和方案被越來(lái)越多地合并兩個(gè)或多個(gè)這些元素 (QAAHE，1998，第 4 頁(yè)）。</p><p>　　這是在這些護(hù)理和教育等較高專業(yè)學(xué)習(xí)與最密切相關(guān)的學(xué)科的情況尤其如此。在這些的領(lǐng)域的"反光醫(yī)

66、生"Schon 的概念已很有影響力 (1983 Schon）。在這些的領(lǐng)域有何通常旨在發(fā)展反思的從業(yè)人員。</p><p>　　另一支流使反思學(xué)習(xí)到何課程是何的高校教育發(fā)展單位的工作和其他機(jī)構(gòu)。這項(xiàng)工作已在過(guò)去的十年 （2001年，鵝) 迅速擴(kuò)大。提供課程的教學(xué)和學(xué)習(xí)的學(xué)生支持工作人員發(fā)展工作的核心要素。這些課程的宣傳文獻(xiàn)的最近一項(xiàng)調(diào)查建議這些課程的概念基礎(chǔ)由兩個(gè)觀念： 科爾布的經(jīng)驗(yàn)學(xué)習(xí)周期 ；和 Sc

67、hon 的反思醫(yī)生 （2000 Bourner 等人）。反思式學(xué)習(xí)關(guān)鍵作用在這兩種思想。該課程被為了準(zhǔn)備和學(xué)科的他整個(gè)發(fā)展的教師。在這樣做時(shí)，他們帶到學(xué)科的反思性學(xué)習(xí)的概念跨學(xué)院的每個(gè)部分。</p><p>　　他是否是準(zhǔn)備終身學(xué)習(xí)的學(xué)生，經(jīng)驗(yàn)豐富的專業(yè)人員提供持續(xù)專業(yè)發(fā)展或?qū)W術(shù)界人士準(zhǔn)備在他，教學(xué)反思性學(xué)習(xí)的作用越來(lái)越大。</p><p>　　這份文件看評(píng)估所產(chǎn)生的反思式學(xué)習(xí)的知識(shí)成果的

68、主觀性質(zhì)的反思性學(xué)習(xí)中存在的問題、 經(jīng)驗(yàn)教訓(xùn)的目的，是從他是批判性思維的長(zhǎng)時(shí)間接觸，提供了一個(gè)解決方案基于一個(gè)提問的反思式的學(xué)習(xí)方法。</p><p>　　為什么評(píng)估反思性學(xué)習(xí)？</p><p>　　它是重要評(píng)估反思學(xué)習(xí)能夠向?qū)W生提供反饋意見，并能夠證明學(xué)生已通過(guò)反思學(xué)習(xí)能力。</p><p>　　如果要發(fā)展的反思性實(shí)踐能力的一門課程的學(xué)習(xí)成果，然后評(píng)估是必要的認(rèn)證

69、取得的學(xué)習(xí)成果。如果他一項(xiàng)課程的目的很大一部分產(chǎn)生反思從業(yè)人員很難知道如果課程實(shí)現(xiàn)其目的，除非反思學(xué)習(xí)評(píng)估。</p><p>　　如果反思學(xué)習(xí)沒有評(píng)估它是最容易被忽視。評(píng)估已被描述為"搖狗的尾巴"。注意以下評(píng)估和行為遵循注意。大多數(shù)學(xué)生最關(guān)注什么評(píng)估。這不是評(píng)估是最有可能最被忽視的。</p><p>　　在學(xué)院內(nèi)評(píng)估賦予的合法性。學(xué)院不愿意認(rèn)可，不能進(jìn)行評(píng)估。最近的一個(gè)

70、好例子的這一原則是基于工作學(xué)習(xí)何 （布仁立爵士和小 1996年） 內(nèi)的認(rèn)可。認(rèn)可的工作為基礎(chǔ)的學(xué)習(xí)一直遵循的形式的工作為基礎(chǔ)的學(xué)習(xí) ； 評(píng)估的發(fā)展在何工作學(xué)習(xí)的合法性取決于其認(rèn)可。直到相對(duì)安全方法的評(píng)估工作為基礎(chǔ)的學(xué)習(xí)了它仍然在邊緣的何。直到反思學(xué)習(xí)的評(píng)估是安全反光學(xué)習(xí)將不會(huì)取得充分的合法性，在學(xué)院內(nèi)。</p><p>　　評(píng)估反思學(xué)習(xí)的主要障礙是什么？</p><p>　　評(píng)估反思學(xué)習(xí)的

71、主要障礙是思考的重大和可變的比例的學(xué)習(xí)成果是思考的主觀的知識(shí)，而不是思考的客觀的知識(shí)。只有做思考的人可以評(píng)估是否發(fā)生，是重要的是他們的學(xué)習(xí)。但是，安全評(píng)估的概念意味著某種形式的一種獨(dú)立的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)對(duì)評(píng)價(jià)。如果有用評(píng)估世界各地標(biāo)準(zhǔn)必須是評(píng)估的顯式的。在個(gè)人的學(xué)習(xí)的情況下很難看到什么外部標(biāo)準(zhǔn)可以用來(lái)測(cè)量學(xué)習(xí)的價(jià)值。</p><p>　　有另一個(gè)相關(guān)的障礙阻礙反思學(xué)習(xí)的評(píng)估。評(píng)估通常包括在多大程度上，有的學(xué)生取得計(jì)劃的學(xué)習(xí)成

72、果的判斷。思考是轉(zhuǎn)化為學(xué)習(xí)經(jīng)驗(yàn)的過(guò)程，該學(xué)習(xí)是突發(fā)的而不是計(jì)劃。很難先驗(yàn)，指定計(jì)劃學(xué)習(xí)產(chǎn)生急診學(xué)習(xí)成果的進(jìn)程的結(jié)果。在沒有計(jì)劃的學(xué)習(xí)成果的情況下沒有什么要根據(jù)其進(jìn)行評(píng)估，學(xué)習(xí)。</p><p>　　面對(duì)這份文件的策略是通過(guò)從區(qū)域，以及推行經(jīng)過(guò)深思熟慮的他的批判性思維的域已傳輸?shù)南敕▽ふ仪斑M(jìn)的道路的反思性學(xué)習(xí)評(píng)價(jià)這些兩個(gè)重大障礙。</p><p>　　我們可以從批判性思維學(xué)什么？</p

73、><p>　　1991 年，1980 年代的大部分時(shí)間是經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會(huì)研究理事會(huì)主席，的第海牙道格拉斯先生寫道關(guān)鍵思考能力判斷的想法和證據(jù)，是他的主要目的：學(xué)者必須相信獲取測(cè)試的想法和證據(jù)的能力是大學(xué)教育 （1991，第 64，海牙） 的主要優(yōu)點(diǎn)。</p><p>　　此語(yǔ)句可能是視圖的二十世紀(jì)的大部分時(shí)間準(zhǔn)確地反映的大多數(shù)大學(xué)學(xué)者。當(dāng)然，大部分會(huì)已同意大學(xué)畢業(yè)的一個(gè)特點(diǎn)是他們都不怎么關(guān)鍵學(xué)院的主

74、張。</p><p>　　含意是我們有了大量的檢測(cè)存在批判性思維在評(píng)估學(xué)生工作。我們現(xiàn)正評(píng)估學(xué)生工作時(shí)，我們?nèi)绾蚊靼着行运季S的存在？我們尋求在評(píng)估工作的學(xué)生的批判性思維的證據(jù)是什么？</p><p>　　傳統(tǒng)上，我們已研究過(guò)的學(xué)生提出了搜索問題與他們進(jìn)行了的材料和自己的想法的證據(jù)。批判性思維是否意味什么搜索問題呢？表載有十幾個(gè)問題，我們可能會(huì)承認(rèn)作為在審問的想法、 證據(jù)和斷言的過(guò)程中的關(guān)

75、鍵思想家的工具。</p><p>　　我們?cè)u(píng)估學(xué)生工作和我們發(fā)現(xiàn)證據(jù)的使用這類問題時(shí)我們可以合理地得出結(jié)論學(xué)生發(fā)展批判性思維的能力。</p><p>　　本文的其余部分解決了這個(gè)問題： 可以我們這種方法從傳輸批判性思維的評(píng)估的反思性學(xué)習(xí)評(píng)估嗎？換而言，我們正在尋找一種泛型過(guò)程的批判性思維和反思學(xué)習(xí)的對(duì)應(yīng)關(guān)系。</p><p>　　第一步是要注意在術(shù)語(yǔ)"批判

76、性思維"和"反思性學(xué)習(xí)"之間的區(qū)別。我們很少講的"關(guān)鍵學(xué)習(xí)"或"反思的思維。注意到這種不同語(yǔ)言的使用使我們能夠作出的調(diào)整，我們追求的相似之處 ；今后，我們將尋找"批判性思維"和"反思性思維"之間的相似之處。</p><p>　　"反思性思維"取代"反思性學(xué)習(xí)"一詞也很重要，因

77、為它分隔出的反思 （即反思思考） 從內(nèi)容，思考的過(guò)程，它是主觀性質(zhì)的內(nèi)容即反思式學(xué)習(xí)評(píng)價(jià)的主要障礙。</p><p>　　當(dāng)某人查詢一些過(guò)去的經(jīng)驗(yàn)提出的這一經(jīng)驗(yàn)搜索問題時(shí)他們正在沉思考慮這件事。只需查看發(fā)生了什么事，并不構(gòu)成反思的思想 ；它是盡可能 unreflectively 檢討經(jīng)驗(yàn)，就是拙劣讀一本書。</p><p>　　一樣的批判性思維過(guò)程意味著搜索提問，如此的反思性思維過(guò)程意味著

78、搜索提問。從無(wú)反思思維的區(qū)別在于一個(gè)經(jīng)驗(yàn)的反思思考是審問，使用搜索問題時(shí)遇到的過(guò)程。什么樣的搜索的問題，詢問他們的經(jīng)驗(yàn)做反思思想家使用？表我組成一組問題的那種，爭(zhēng)辯批判性思維 ；表二包含一組的那種罪名反思思考的問題。</p><p>　　我們?cè)u(píng)估學(xué)生工作和我們發(fā)現(xiàn)證據(jù)的使用這類問題時(shí)我們可以合理地得出結(jié)論學(xué)生已發(fā)展的反思性思維能力。</p><p>　　換而言評(píng)估反思學(xué)習(xí)這份文件中提出的問

79、題的解決方案是基于證據(jù)的能力，詢問搜索問題的經(jīng)驗(yàn)。當(dāng)我們?cè)u(píng)估的批判性思維能力是這種情況，有時(shí)這些問題將會(huì)明確，有時(shí)他們會(huì)在學(xué)生工作中隱式。</p><p>　　此解決方案是如何處理的反思性學(xué)習(xí)評(píng)價(jià)的障礙： 主觀性質(zhì)的反思性學(xué)習(xí)和沒有事先學(xué)習(xí)成果要評(píng)估反思的學(xué)習(xí)，是突發(fā)的而不是計(jì)劃的。</p><p>　　盡管反思學(xué)習(xí)的內(nèi)容是主觀的反思性學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程不是。這是因?yàn)椋?反思性學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程的核心審問經(jīng)驗(yàn)

80、搜索的問題 ；和我們可以識(shí)別的反思獨(dú)立于內(nèi)容的搜索問題。反思式學(xué)習(xí)不發(fā)生一名學(xué)生，這是學(xué)生如何處理發(fā)生了什么事。當(dāng)我們?cè)u(píng)估的思考很重要我們不做評(píng)估我們?cè)u(píng)估的內(nèi)容，而是一個(gè)經(jīng)驗(yàn)的內(nèi)容做了什么，學(xué)生。</p><p>　　有一個(gè)并行這里與項(xiàng)目工作。通常允許學(xué)生選擇他們自己的項(xiàng)目的主題內(nèi)容，盡管如此，我們?nèi)孕判臉?biāo)記的項(xiàng)目報(bào)告。這是因?yàn)槲覀儸F(xiàn)正評(píng)估受雇從事該項(xiàng)目，在項(xiàng)目的報(bào)告中，可見而然后項(xiàng)目?jī)?nèi)容本身的過(guò)程。學(xué)生的教育的