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1、<p><b> 生活景觀</b></p><p> The Living Landscape</p><p> 學(xué) 部(院):建筑與藝術(shù)設(shè)計(jì)學(xué)院 </p><p> 專(zhuān) 業(yè):藝術(shù)設(shè)計(jì)(環(huán)境藝術(shù)設(shè)計(jì))</p><p> 學(xué) 生 姓 名:
2、 </p><p> 學(xué) 號(hào): </p><p> 指 導(dǎo) 教 師: </p><p> 完 成 日 期: </p><p><b> 8</b></p>
3、<p> CONTINUING CITIZEN</p><p> INVOLVEMENT AND</p><p> COMMUNITY EDUCATION</p><p> Education is a lifelong process that should seek to achieve awareness, balanced per-&l
4、t;/p><p> ception, learning, and decision making. To accomplish these goals, individuals must</p><p> develop a functional understanding of their cultural inheritance as well as the ability</p
5、><p> to contribute in a positive manner to society. Education occurs through the tradi-</p><p> tional institutions identified for that purpose, through continuing involvement in a</p>&l
6、t;p> discipline, through community programs, and, in the broadest sense, through popu-</p><p> lar culture. Community education increases both citizens' and planners' knowledge</p><p&
7、gt; about a place.</p><p> Many planners have urged that public education and involvement efforts be in-</p><p> tegrated thoroughly into each step of the planning process. For instance, acco
8、rding</p><p> to William Lassey,</p><p> If planning is to be successful, a major reordering of public education, involvement,</p><p> and communication processes maybe necessary
9、 Existing scientific knowledge about</p><p> effective communication processes, and knowledge about human learning provide</p><p> vastly increased potential for public understanding,</p>
10、;<p> appreciation, and involvement in significant societal</p><p> decisions. Formal education methods for diffusing in-</p><p> formation and internalizing knowledge are archaic</
11、p><p> compared with potential learning capability of the hu-</p><p> man population. It is increasingly clear that lifelong</p><p> educational processes are essential for adequate
12、 hu-</p><p> man adjustment to changing job requirements and</p><p> life-styles, but effective communication of knowledge</p><p> crucial to public decision making is equally im
13、portant</p><p> if the planet is to survive (1977, 74).</p><p> As a result, community education must be both</p><p> future-oriented and ongoing. Continuing education</p>
14、<p> should assist people in making linkages between their</p><p> individual skills and interests and larger public is-</p><p> sues. Without such linkages, the rules and regula-</p
15、><p> dons developed to protect people's health, safety, and</p><p> welfare will be treated with suspicion by those whom</p><p> they were meant to protect. Although community&
16、lt;/p><p> education and citizen involvement should be consid-</p><p> ered central and integral to each step in the plan-</p><p> ning process as indicated by Figure 1.1, they are
17、placed here in the process as a reminder that even after a landscape plan has been developed, continued explanation about the plan is often necessary before it is implemented.</p><p> Rachel Kaplan and her
18、colleagues argue that "gen-</p><p> uine participation needs to start early and reach the di-</p><p> verse segments of the population" (Kaplan et al. 1998,</p><p> 126
19、). They also note that "meaningful participation re-</p><p> quires information that is readily understood" (Kaplan</p><p> et al. 1998, 128). A strategy that combines these two</
20、p><p> points would be to involve people early, then collect and synthesize the relevant information so that it may be understood, and then reengage the public. However, citizens can be involved in even the mo
21、st technical steps of the planning process. For example, in the early 1970s,Ian McHarg worked with the people of Wilmington andDover, Vermont, to compile a detailed ecological inventort' and analysis of their region
22、(McHarg and Steiner</p><p><b> 1998).</b></p><p> Planners, politicians, architects, landscape archi-</p><p> tects, and other community leaders have much to gain<
23、/p><p> from citizen participation. A public involvement pro-</p><p> gram can guarantee the success of a policy or project. It is also democratic. When viewed as part of ongoing</p><p
24、> community education, citizens and planners widen</p><p> their planning knowledge as a result of participatory</p><p><b> efforts.</b></p><p> Citizen involveme
25、nt techniques can be classified as information dissemination, information collection, inidative planning, reactive planning, decision making, and participation process support. Community organizadons, publications, and t
26、elevision and radio can be used in a community education program門(mén)wo examples of planning efforts that have included an educational element include the University of Wisconsin Community Development Program and the Bluepri
27、nt for a Sustainable San Francisco Bay Area</p><p> Citizen Involvement</p><p> One of the major purposes of planning is to involve</p><p> citizens in their government. A progra
28、m should be</p><p> developed that seeks to involve all citizens in each</p><p> step of the planning process. There is no formula as</p><p> to how to involve citizens in all ph
29、ases of planning.</p><p> However, the characteristics of such an open plan-</p><p> ning process are easy to identify. According to the</p><p> U.S. Department of Transportation
30、,</p><p> Openness means that the purpose and the content of</p><p> the process as well as the schedule for doing it, are de-</p><p> scribed as clearly and concretely as possib
31、le-the de-</p><p> cisions that have to be made, the information thatwill</p><p> be used to make them, the choices which are and are</p><p> not open for consideration and why a
32、nd the time</p><p> when different steps are necessary and desirable</p><p> (1976b, 8).</p><p> Many state laws and legislation for federal land</p><p> management
33、 agencies mandate such involvement.</p><p> In Oregon, for instance, county and city govern-</p><p> ments, which are responsible for preparing and</p><p> adopting comprehensive
34、 plans, must have a pro-</p><p> gram that involves the public in an iterative way.</p><p> The Oregon citizen involvement program has six</p><p> components:</p><p>
35、; 1. Citizen involvement</p><p> 2. Communication</p><p> 3. Citizen influence</p><p> 4. Technical information</p><p> 5. Feedback mechanisms</p><p>
36、 6. Financial support (Department of Land Con-</p><p> nervation and Development 1996).</p><p> The guidelines for the citizen involvement tom-</p><p> ponent stipulate that the
37、 program should use a</p><p> range of media, including television, radio, newspa-</p><p> pers, mailings, and meetings. Oregon universities,</p><p> colleges, community colleges
38、, high schools, and</p><p> grade schools are to provide information and courses about land-use planning. The program is</p><p> also to include an officially recognized committee</p&
39、gt;<p> for citizen involvement. This committee is responsi-</p><p> ble for assisting the county commission or city</p><p> council in the involvement effort (Land Conser-</p>
40、<p> vation and Development Commission 1980; De-</p><p> partment of Land Conservation and Development</p><p><b> 1996).</b></p><p> Two-way communication betwe
41、en the govern-</p><p> ing body and the public is to be assured in Oregon</p><p> cities and counties. Mechanisms such as newslet-</p><p> ters, mailings, posters, and mail-back
42、question-</p><p> mires are recommended. The purpose of the in-</p><p> volvement and the communication is to give Oregon citizens direct influence in the planning</p><p>
43、process. Citizens are to be involved in data col-</p><p> lection, plan preparation, the adoption process,</p><p> implementation, evaluation, and revision (Land</p><p> Conserv
44、ation and Development Commission 1980;</p><p> Department of Land Conservation and Develop-</p><p> ment 1996).</p><p> Planners in Oregon are responsible to "assure</p&g
45、t;<p> that technical information is available in an under-</p><p> standable form:' There is also a requirement that</p><p> "feedback mechanisms" exist to "assure
46、that citizens</p><p> will receive a response" from policymakers. Finally,</p><p> Oregon law requires that there be adequate financial</p><p> support to ensure "fundi
47、ng for the citizen involve-</p><p> ment program" (Land Conservation and Develop-</p><p> ment Commission 1980, 3; Department of Land</p><p> Conservation and Development 19
48、96).</p><p> Other states have followed Oregon's lead. For ex-</p><p> ample, Arizona's 1998 "Growing Smarter" law pro-</p><p> motes citizen participation in g
49、eneral plan adoption</p><p> and amendment. Local governments in Arizona are</p><p> required "to adopt written procedures to provide ef-</p><p> fective, early and continuo
50、us public participation</p><p> from all geographic, ethnic, and economic areas of</p><p> the municipality" (Arizona Department of Com-</p><p> merce 1998, 3). These proced
51、ures must include "(a)</p><p> broad dissemination of proposals and alternatives;</p><p> (b) opportunity for written comments; (c) public</p><p> hearings after effective n
52、otice; (d) open discussions,</p><p> communications programs and information ser-</p><p> vices; and consideration of public comment" (Ari-</p><p> zona Department of Commer
53、ce 1998, 3).</p><p> All federal land management agencies have</p><p> guidelines for public participation, but the require-</p><p> ments vary. For instance, the intent of publi
54、c partic-</p><p> ipation in the National Forest System is to</p><p> ·Ensure that the U.S. Forest Service under-</p><p> stands the needs and concerns of the public</p&g
55、t;<p> ·Inform the public of U.S. Forest Service land</p><p> and resource planning activities</p><p> ·Provide the public with an understanding of</p><p> U.S.
56、 Forest Service programs and proposed</p><p><b> actions</b></p><p> ·Broaden the information base upon which</p><p> land and resource management planning de-&l
57、t;/p><p> cisions are made</p><p> ·Demonstrate that public issues and inputs</p><p> are considered and evaluated in reaching</p><p> planning decisions (ad
58、apted from U.S. Con-</p><p> gress 1979)</p><p> One of the reasons why federal land manage-</p><p> ment agencies have public participation programs is</p><p> to
59、comply with National Environmental Policy Act</p><p> requirements and regulations (see Chapter 11). As a</p><p> result of NEPA, federal land planning activities are</p><p> sub
60、ject to environmental impact reviews. USFS pub-</p><p> lic participation efforts include keeping the news</p><p> media informed of planning actions. Other activities</p><p> in
61、clude "requests for written comments, meetings,</p><p> conferences, seminars, workshops, tours, and similar</p><p> events designed to foster public review and partici-</p><p&
62、gt; pation" (U.S. Congress 1979, 53988). To increase in-</p><p> formation about its plans, the USFS is supposed to</p><p> coordinate its planning activities among all levels of</p&g
63、t;<p> government, including other federal agencies, state</p><p> and local governments, and Indian nations.</p><p> Classification of Citizen</p><p> Participation Tech
64、niques</p><p> The U.S.Department of Transportation (1976b) has classified citizen participation techniques, such as</p><p> One of the major purposes of an open planning process is to involve
65、 citizens in their government.</p><p> those described in Chapters 2 and 6, on the basis of</p><p> their function, as follows:</p><p> ·Information dissemination</p>
66、<p> ·Information collection</p><p> ·Initiative planning</p><p> ·Reactive planning</p><p> ·Decision making</p><p> ·Participation
67、 process support</p><p> Although a technique may have more than one</p><p> function, the classification is based on its primary</p><p> purpose. The information dissemination c
68、lass "con-</p><p> tams techniques which inform the public of any</p><p> steps the agency is taking, any opportunities the</p><p> public has to [influence] the process, an
69、d the pro-</p><p> posed plans that have been brought forward" (U.S.</p><p> Department of Transportation 1976b, 18). Various</p><p> community education and information pro
70、grams</p><p> and open meetings are examples of this technique</p><p> classification.</p><p> Information collection techniques are used to</p><p> identify the ma
71、jor issues facing a community or to</p><p> assess the attitudes that community may have re-</p><p> garding the issues. These techniques can also be</p><p> used to determine th
72、e public support for planning</p><p> goals, policies, and strategies as well as to collect in-</p><p> ventory information. Surveys, public opinion polls,</p><p> Delphi, commun
73、ity sponsored meetings, public</p><p> hearings, and participant observation are some</p><p> ways information is collected (see Chapter 4).</p><p> In initiative planning, the r
74、esponsibility for pro-</p><p> ducing proposals and structuring options is assigned</p><p> to the community or its representatives. Planning</p><p> agencies, meanwhile, supply
75、information and tech-</p><p> nical assistance. Advocacy planning, task forces,</p><p> workshops, and charrettes are examples of initiative</p><p> planning. Conversely, in reac
76、tive planning, it is the</p><p> agency that makes the proposals and the community</p><p> that reacts. Citizens' advisory committees are an ex-</p><p> ample of reactive pla
77、nning (U.S. Department of</p><p> Transportation 1976b).</p><p> Decision-making techniques are designed to help</p><p> a community develop a consensus on an issue, a</p>
78、<p> goal, an option, or a plan. Such techniques do not</p><p> replace the responsibilities of elected or appointed</p><p> officials but are intended to augment them. Refer-</p>
79、<p> enda, which may in fact be binding, and citizen re-</p><p> view boards are two decision-making techniques</p><p> (U.S. Department of Transportation 1976b).</p><p>
80、 The final classification is panicipation process</p><p> support techniques. According to the Department of</p><p> Transportation(1976b), these methods serve to</p><p> make ot
81、her types of techniques more effective and to</p><p> cut across all of the other categories. Citizen hono-</p><p> raria may be used, for instance, to compensate peo-</p><p> pl
82、e for being involved in the process. Such payment</p><p> may permit people to become active who would not</p><p> otherwise be able to participate. But paying people to</p><p>
83、be citizens raises important ethical questions about</p><p> the responsibilities of people in a democracy. An-</p><p> other technique is citizen training, where individuals</p><p&
84、gt; are taught leadership and planning skills (U.S. De-</p><p> partment of Transportation 1976b).</p><p> Continuing Community Education</p><p> Public participation is concern
85、ed both with involv-</p><p> ing people in the process and then continuing to in-</p><p> form citizens about changes and a街ustments to the</p><p> plan and its implementation an
86、d administration.</p><p> Once a community is organized for the process,</p><p> some form of that organization can continue. For</p><p> example, in the New Jersey Pinelands a c
87、ommission</p><p> was established that is responsible for involving</p><p> people in the planning process and establishing a</p><p> continuing information effort. The public pa
88、rtici-</p><p> pation program included activities like workshops</p><p> and conferences, public workshops on specific top-</p><p> ics, personal communications and meetings, and
89、</p><p> the use of knowledgeable private individuals for</p><p> guidance in research areas of interests to the Pine-</p><p> lands Commission (Pinelands Commission 1980).</p
90、><p> Means to keep people informed included newslet-</p><p> ters, television, radio, and websites.</p><p> TNFORMATION AND EDUCATION</p><p> In addition to being a
91、 means for establishing goals</p><p> and for selecting preferences, community organiza-</p><p> dons can provide information and education and</p><p> can keep people involved.
92、As reviewed in Chapters 2</p><p> and 6, there are various types of organizations that</p><p> can be used in a community, including task forces,</p><p> advisory committees, and
93、 neighborhood councils.</p><p> Such groups might sponsor a lecture by an expert</p><p> and/or the showing of a film or a slide presentation.</p><p> Other meetings may take the
94、 form of a workshop</p><p> where the group interacts with facilitators or with a</p><p> two-way television connected with an individual or</p><p> individuals or another group
95、or groups.</p><p> Information can also be presented to communi-</p><p> ties through conferences and symposia. Community</p><p> colleges, universities, or the Cooperative Exten
96、sion</p><p> Service may be used to help organize such gather-</p><p> ings. Professional and academic associations may be</p><p> contacted for involvement as well. Since many m
97、em-</p><p> bers of associations are required to receive a certain</p><p> number of hours of continuing education credit an-</p><p> nually, conference organizers may want to ar
98、range to</p><p> offer credit when appropriate. The content of con-</p><p> ferences and symposia may range from that of a gen-</p><p> eral nature to very advanced. In the Pinel
99、ands, for ex-</p><p> ample, conferences and workshops have been organized ranging from rather simple question-and-</p><p> answer sessions to academic conferences on the ecol-</p><
100、p> ogy and culture of the Pine Barrens.</p><p> Planners are often invited to community orga-</p><p> nizations and clubs, such as those listed in Table 4.1,</p><p> to make
101、presentations. These are good opportuni-</p><p> ties to explain the planning process. Youth groups</p><p> such as the Scouts and 4-H also often invite speakers</p><p> to their
102、 meetings.</p><p> Many planning agencies and commissions, in-</p><p> chiding the Pinelands Commission and the Oregon</p><p> Maps and aerial photographs can help citizens under
103、stand the spatial consequences of planning actions.</p><p> Department of Land Conservation and Develop-</p><p> ment, maintain websites. For example, in 1998 the</p><p> Pinelan
104、ds Commission featured a website on "The</p><p> Pine Barrens Tree Frog&Other Friends:' The Pine</p><p> Barrens tree frog is viewed as a symbol for the re-</p><p>
105、gion. In addition to information about the ecology</p><p> of the tree frog, artwork and photography were dis-</p><p> played. The commission indicated that different</p><p> wil
106、dlife and vegetation species will be featured on its</p><p> website (www.state.nj.us/pinelands).</p><p> The Pinelands Commission developed a contin-</p><p> uing program based
107、on providing information to</p><p> the public, creating awareness through education,</p><p> and involving people in the implementation of the</p><p> plan. According to the Pin
108、elands Commission,</p><p> The public has to be kept informed of the Commis-</p><p> sion's activities and the purpose of the Comprehen-</p><p> sive Management Plan. Public
109、information efforts</p><p> must reach as wide and diverse an audience as possi-</p><p> ble. Educational materials have to be provided, em-</p><p> phasizing the sensitive natur
110、e of the Pinelands' re-</p><p> sources and detailing critical issues related to their</p><p> protection. Points at which public involvement is</p><p> most meaningful have
111、to be highlighted, with a range</p><p> of opportunities provided for both active and passive</p><p> involvement. The overall program must be visible,</p><p> continuous, and re
112、sponsive (1980, 330).</p><p> Pinelands planners recognized that information,</p><p> education, and involvement would inevitably over-</p><p> lap. "All information is educ
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