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1、<p><b>  美國(guó)移民多元化</b></p><p>  由于美國(guó)移民人口的種族、民族和語(yǔ)言的越來(lái)越多樣化,美國(guó)移民法改變了[1].20世紀(jì)70年代以來(lái),大量的新移民者進(jìn)入美國(guó),這使得不同種族和語(yǔ)言群體的教育成為了一個(gè)主要問(wèn)題。20世紀(jì)70年代,部分來(lái)自南美、加勒比、亞洲和中美洲國(guó)家的移民涌起。因而,在洛杉磯、紐約市,以及分散在該國(guó)的各個(gè)城市、附近地區(qū)的群體被確定為移民。20

2、世紀(jì)80年代,新移民在紐約市有了傳統(tǒng)的住宅,西班牙黃頁(yè)電話簿直接發(fā)行,而且,在地鐵系統(tǒng)的大部分廣告也用西班牙語(yǔ)。在紐約各處,來(lái)自南韓的移民接管了雜貨店企業(yè),并且開(kāi)放修指甲沙龍店;而其他移民群體接管了報(bào)攤和飯店。在布魯克林的布萊頓海灘地區(qū),在民族商品商店里能夠看見(jiàn)來(lái)自俄羅斯的猶太移民,在書店里能看到外文書籍。</p><p>  從 20世紀(jì)70年代以來(lái),1965年的移民法推動(dòng)了移民新浪潮進(jìn)入美國(guó)。1965年移民法

3、之前,移民是由1924年入境條令中的種族配額部分決定的。1924年條令的通過(guò)經(jīng)歷了一段極端的種族主義時(shí)期。它規(guī)定了每年允許移民到美國(guó)的各國(guó)群體的配額,而該配額由1920年包括移民群體在內(nèi)的美國(guó)總?cè)丝诘陌俜直葲Q定的。1924年移民法公開(kāi)表示,其目的是為了限制非白人人口的移民人數(shù)。</p><p>  從20世紀(jì)20年代末到20世紀(jì)50年代早期,由于1924移民法、20世紀(jì)30年代的移民蕭條和第二次世界大戰(zhàn),美國(guó)移民

4、人數(shù)下降。20世紀(jì)50年代,移民到美國(guó)的人數(shù)開(kāi)始增加,并且在1965條令通過(guò)之后,經(jīng)歷了一個(gè)戲劇性的變化。雖然在1965移民法之前,來(lái)自歐洲的移民所占的比例和來(lái)自亞洲和美國(guó)的移民比例幾乎相同,但是在1965移民法之后,來(lái)自歐洲的移民比例急劇減少,而來(lái)自亞洲和美洲的比例大幅增加。</p><p>  20世紀(jì)60年代末至二十一世紀(jì)期間,來(lái)自墨西哥移民的年均人數(shù)最多。近年來(lái),雖然來(lái)自亞洲的移民越來(lái)越多,但是墨西哥移民

5、仍比其他任何一個(gè)國(guó)家多。1969年,美國(guó)移民來(lái)源的排列為墨西哥,意大利,菲律賓,加拿大和希臘。到了 1973年,加拿大和希臘從名單中退下,然后變?yōu)槟鞲?,菲律賓,古巴,韓國(guó)和意大利。兩年之后,意大利取代了中國(guó)臺(tái)灣。在余下的20世紀(jì)70年代間,來(lái)自亞洲和太平洋地區(qū)的移民比例穩(wěn)步上升。1980年,前五大移民來(lái)源為墨西哥、越南、菲律賓、韓國(guó)和中國(guó)臺(tái)灣。</p><p>  在20世紀(jì)80年代期間,美國(guó)亞裔人口從1980

6、年的650萬(wàn)到1988年的380萬(wàn),增長(zhǎng)了百分之七十[2]。三分之一的亞洲移民人口定居在加利福尼亞。亞洲移民代表著多民族和多語(yǔ)言的群體。在20世紀(jì)80年,至少有百分之八十的亞洲移民來(lái)自中國(guó)、臺(tái)灣、香港、越南、柬埔寨、老撾、菲律賓、日本、韓國(guó)和密克羅尼西亞。而大多數(shù)亞洲移民比以前的群體受過(guò)更高的專業(yè)和教育培訓(xùn)。</p><p>  1、美國(guó)移民者的教育經(jīng)歷</p><p>  到達(dá)美國(guó)的移民

7、群體擁有各種各樣的教育背景。例如:研究發(fā)現(xiàn)華人移民在紐約市取得了巨大的教育成就。那些住在唐人街的移民主要是工人階級(jí)的背景,并且被限制接觸正規(guī)學(xué)習(xí)。一項(xiàng)研究發(fā)現(xiàn):在紐約、波士頓和舊金山,百分之八十五左右的唐人街居民沒(méi)有上過(guò)中學(xué)。這些移民兒童通常因?yàn)檎Z(yǔ)言問(wèn)題,所以在學(xué)校學(xué)習(xí)困難。另一方面,在美國(guó),許多富裕并且受過(guò)良好教育華人移民,他們不僅不愿住在唐人街,而且通常送子女上大學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)。移民者的教育水平反映了他們的社會(huì)階級(jí)背景。就中國(guó)而言,一些農(nóng)民

8、背景的移民很少有機(jī)會(huì)接受高等教育;另一方面,一些來(lái)自專業(yè)階級(jí)背景的移民成為工程師或者學(xué)院老師。因此,移民者接受怎樣的教育,必須根據(jù)社會(huì)和教育背景來(lái)評(píng)估。由于每個(gè)移民群體和移民群體之間的教育背景有很大的區(qū)別,所以為了討論方便起見(jiàn),我將集中討論亞太移民的變化。不過(guò),來(lái)自其他地區(qū)的移民存在著類似的差異,尤其是獨(dú)聯(lián)體國(guó)家。</p><p>  2、 亞洲美國(guó)學(xué)生和美國(guó)學(xué)校</p><p>  和墨

9、西哥裔美國(guó)人一樣,亞裔美國(guó)人沒(méi)有得到很多英裔美國(guó)市民的熱烈歡迎。因?yàn)?790年入籍法限制歸化公民身份為“自由白人”,所以他們沒(méi)有公民資格。但是在美國(guó)出生的亞洲移民的子女,他們出生后就是美國(guó)公民。</p><p>  19世紀(jì)50年代,第一批華人移民抵達(dá)加利福尼亞州,并且加入了淘金熱。為了搜索金山,這些第一批抵達(dá)的自由勞動(dòng)者自費(fèi)到淘金區(qū)。到了1852年,加利福尼亞大約有2000名華人移民。直到19世紀(jì)60年代,大約

10、有16000名華人移民在加州金礦區(qū)工作。但是由于礦業(yè)利潤(rùn)減少,華人移民發(fā)現(xiàn)沒(méi)有足夠的資金回到他們的國(guó)家,他們只好在這里找工作。這些華人移民被雇用興建橫貫大陸的鐵路。然而,他們的工資不到白人的三分之一。此外,中國(guó)工人為了填補(bǔ)低工資的工作,在加尼福尼亞建立農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)。1871年,種族敵意由于22個(gè)中國(guó)人被洛杉磯暴民私刑被突出了。</p><p>  在日本移民稍后的時(shí)期,由于 1639年日本法律,日本人禁止移民去外國(guó)。

11、1869年,情況開(kāi)始改變。一直到1884年,日本政府允許開(kāi)放,移民去夏威夷。在1885年和1920年之間,多達(dá)20000名日本移民到夏威夷,18000名日本移民到美國(guó)。在1903年到1920年之間,加上亞洲人口,共有8000名朝鮮首選移民至夏威夷。1907 年到1917年間,當(dāng)印度限制移民時(shí),6400名亞洲印度人來(lái)到了美國(guó)。1907年,偶然成為美國(guó)公民的菲律賓人,他們被抓到菲律賓群島作勞工。到了1930年,共有110000名菲律賓人在夏

12、威夷定居,4000名菲律賓人在大陸定居。</p><p>  1790年入籍法的只適應(yīng)白人條款以及其他法律條款,使美國(guó)法院不得不去處理亞洲美國(guó)人的種族劃分問(wèn)題。19世紀(jì),加利福尼亞僅僅把這些移民劃分為蒙古南亞、北亞,東南亞和印度。[3]之后,盡管這些地區(qū)之間的文化和語(yǔ)言有很大的區(qū)別,但是歐裔美國(guó)人使用亞洲的術(shù)語(yǔ),來(lái)指不同地方的移民以及他們的子代。不幸的是,當(dāng)亞裔美國(guó)人在美國(guó)普遍使用的時(shí)候,這個(gè)術(shù)語(yǔ)反而掩蓋國(guó)家和人

13、民的差異,如韓國(guó)(韓國(guó)人)、日本(日本人)、中國(guó)(中國(guó)人)、柬埔寨(柬埔寨人)、印度尼西(印度尼西亞人 )和印度(印度人)。</p><p>  1855年陳雍事例,其證明了亞洲人的法律地位不穩(wěn)定。加州聯(lián)邦地區(qū)法院按照1790年入籍法裁定:僅白人有公民身份。因此,如中國(guó)移民陳雍沒(méi)有資格成為美國(guó)公民。</p><p>  20世紀(jì)20年代,在加利福尼亞州、華盛頓、亞利桑那州、俄勒岡州、愛(ài)達(dá)荷

14、州、內(nèi)布拉斯加州、得克薩斯州、堪薩斯州、路易斯安那州、蒙大拿州、新墨西哥州、明尼蘇達(dá)州和密蘇里州,法院的裁決和限制性公民法剝奪了亞洲人擁有土地所有權(quán)的法律通過(guò)了。該法律限制了不具有美國(guó)公民資格的個(gè)人擁有土地的權(quán)力。因此,制定這些法律的目的是:拒絕亞洲人擁有土地所有權(quán)的資格。</p><p>  二戰(zhàn)期間,入籍法和法庭裁決經(jīng)歷了飛速的變化。在反對(duì)日本的行動(dòng)爆發(fā)之前,大多數(shù)英裔美國(guó)人以自己的的立場(chǎng)認(rèn)為:所有的亞洲人都

15、相同,而且很難辨別出他們本質(zhì)的區(qū)別。由于二次大戰(zhàn)期間,中國(guó)成為美國(guó)的盟友,而日本成為美國(guó)的敵人。所以,與本世紀(jì)初呈現(xiàn)的形象對(duì)比,包括廣播,電影,報(bào)紙,雜志等大眾媒體,中國(guó)的形象描繪為“勤勞、勇敢、虔誠(chéng)、聰明、實(shí)用“,而把日本描繪為”奸詐、狡猾、殘酷、好戰(zhàn)?!?lt;/p><p>  由于戰(zhàn)時(shí)條件,中國(guó)人的歸化禁令被忽略了。15000名到20000名的華裔男子和婦女加入了軍隊(duì)的各個(gè)分隊(duì)。1943年,國(guó)會(huì)廢除排華法,給予

16、華人移民成為入籍公民的權(quán)利。但是每年允許移民入境的限額僅有105人[4]。而入籍權(quán)利沒(méi)有延伸到印度的移民和菲律賓的華人移民。直到1946年,每個(gè)國(guó)家每年允許入境的限額為100個(gè)。</p><p>  第二次世界大戰(zhàn)期間,與中國(guó)的待遇相比,日本美國(guó)公民身份完全被漠視。超過(guò)10.0萬(wàn)日裔美國(guó)人拘留在集中營(yíng)。因?yàn)槌錾诿绹?guó),所以許多日裔美國(guó)人成為美國(guó)公民。 </p><p>  為什么日裔美國(guó)人

17、被埋葬在集中營(yíng)里,而其他美國(guó)的敵人后裔,如德國(guó)和意大利人的后裔沒(méi)有呢?美國(guó)司法部的三名律師認(rèn)為:這是因?yàn)椤拔鞣窖劬o(wú)法迅速辨別出日本居民”。美國(guó)政府在珍珠港的結(jié)論報(bào)告是:把日本公民安置在集中營(yíng),就是認(rèn)為日本是“敵種族”,并且聲明:雖然許多日本世代在美國(guó),但是他們的“種族親和力”不會(huì)因?yàn)橐泼穸桓顢唷!耙虼藞?bào)告建議從美國(guó)沿海撤除一切有日本血統(tǒng)的人。</p><p>  1952年,哲麥卡倫,當(dāng)沃爾特法取消了1730

18、年的入籍法的種族制約時(shí),亞裔美國(guó)人的公民身份問(wèn)題終于得到解決。美國(guó)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)花了160多年決定入籍的公民身份將不僅限于白人。在消除移民法中只限白人的條例中,日本美國(guó)公民聯(lián)盟起到了積極的作用。麥卡倫沃爾特法通過(guò)后,日本美國(guó)公民聯(lián)盟成員,哈里評(píng)價(jià):該法案建立了我們享有與其他美國(guó)人平等的法律地位:它給了日本移民和其他所有移民同樣的平等,這是我們從一開(kāi)始一直奮斗的原則。</p><p>  在美國(guó),亞裔美國(guó)人的教育經(jīng)歷與他們的

19、公眾形象相匹配。對(duì)于公眾形象,我指的是那些亞裔美國(guó)人代表,他們出現(xiàn)在由歐洲美國(guó)人控制的流行的報(bào)刊和新聞中的形象。羅伯特李,他對(duì)美國(guó)流行文化中亞裔美國(guó)人形象的研究中,確定了亞洲人的五個(gè)主要形象“-苦力、偏差、黃禍、模范少數(shù)民族。”正如他所指出,每個(gè)形象,包括模范少數(shù)民族,對(duì)美國(guó)家庭造成了一些威脅。</p><p>  在第二次世界大戰(zhàn)之前,教育歧視和隔離起因于歐洲美國(guó)人對(duì)亞裔美國(guó)人持有的的苦力、不正常、黃禍形象。勞

20、力形象來(lái)源于亞洲的奴役工人低工資無(wú)休止的工作,并且接受不合標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的生活條件。這個(gè)形象被認(rèn)為對(duì)白人工薪階層的生活水平造成威脅。偏差形象源于中國(guó)鴉片煙館和亞洲性自由。這個(gè)形象被認(rèn)為對(duì)白人家庭的道德造成威脅。黃禍的形象源于蔓延在美國(guó)的那些亞洲移民。</p><p>  在20世紀(jì)70年代和20世紀(jì)80年代的民權(quán)運(yùn)動(dòng)期間,亞洲美國(guó)人的模范少數(shù)民族形象演變了。亞洲美國(guó)人的普遍思維是:亞洲美國(guó)人不僅具有模范少數(shù)民族形象,而且具

21、有模范學(xué)生形象。這種形象與以前的苦力和黃禍形象截然不同。然而,歐洲美國(guó)人利用模范少數(shù)民族形象去評(píng)判亞洲美國(guó)人和西班牙美國(guó)人。1974年,作家弗蘭克就模范少數(shù)形象而論:“白人喜歡我們是因?yàn)槲覀儾皇呛谌?。?lt;/p><p>  更具有諷刺意義的是:許多亞裔美國(guó)學(xué)生在美國(guó)學(xué)校面臨著教育問(wèn)題,而許多教育家卻因?yàn)槟7渡贁?shù)族裔學(xué)生的模式化形象,忽視了這些教育問(wèn)題。一部分問(wèn)題是:把非亞裔美國(guó)人和所有的亞裔美國(guó)人合并在一起的趨勢(shì)

22、。事實(shí)上,亞裔美國(guó)人代表著一個(gè)擁有著不同文化和國(guó)家的寬廣的組織。瓦萊麗在她的文章中寫到:“亞裔美國(guó)兒童:“多元化人口”“柬埔寨人、中國(guó)人、東印度人、菲律賓人、關(guān)島人、夏威夷人、苗族、印度尼西亞人、日本人、老撾人、薩摩亞人和越南人…[還有] 包括其他亞洲人類別在內(nèi)的更小的亞裔美國(guó)人群組。” 根據(jù)美國(guó)人口調(diào)查分類,這些更小的美國(guó)亞裔美國(guó)群組有16個(gè)。</p><p>  在美國(guó),亞裔美國(guó)人的多樣化也反映某些條件的調(diào)節(jié)

23、范圍。大多數(shù)非亞洲人認(rèn)為:亞裔美國(guó)人在學(xué)校時(shí)是模范生的,能成為成功的企業(yè)家和專家。畢業(yè)后他們的經(jīng)濟(jì)能力也會(huì)迅速提高。在1994年,亞太美國(guó)公共研究所和亞美中心發(fā)表的報(bào)告表明:在美國(guó),許多亞裔美國(guó)人面臨著困難的經(jīng)濟(jì)生活。例如,據(jù)該報(bào)告:1991年,全國(guó)8%的家庭接受公共援助;在加利福尼亞州,77%的柬埔寨老撾家庭接受公共援助。報(bào)告指出:在美國(guó)的任何種族或人種中,柬埔寨、越南和老撾對(duì)福利的依賴性最高。1990年,對(duì)于所有亞裔美國(guó)人的10,5

24、00美元人均收入,少于非西班牙裔白人12 000美元的人均收入。或者據(jù)該報(bào)告,另一種看待亞裔美國(guó)人社區(qū)經(jīng)濟(jì)上區(qū)別的方式是:考慮每個(gè)亞洲美國(guó)家庭的收入多于75,000美元,而有一個(gè)亞裔美國(guó)家庭一年的收入少于10,000美元。雖然三分之一的亞裔美國(guó)人有大專以上的學(xué)歷,但是23%這些亞裔美國(guó)人超過(guò)25歲,比高中文憑的少。而在美國(guó)唐人街四分之一的居民,生活在貧困線以下[5]。</p><p>  當(dāng)經(jīng)濟(jì)圖表突出了許多亞裔

25、美國(guó)人的困境時(shí),歷史指出了亞裔美國(guó)學(xué)生教育上所遇到的歧視。在深思熟慮之后,查爾斯講述了:在加利福尼亞州學(xué)校,亞裔美國(guó)學(xué)生平等的受教育機(jī)會(huì)被剝奪。隨著來(lái)自歐洲美國(guó)人口黃禍呼聲的到來(lái),加利福尼亞州的公共教學(xué)院長(zhǎng)威廉韋爾徹指出:國(guó)家憲法稱中國(guó)是“福利國(guó)家的危害”,并且因此認(rèn)為舊金山?jīng)]有必要去“接受這些人的教育經(jīng)費(fèi)”。一位美國(guó)化中國(guó)人約瑟夫帶,在法院提出拒絕他女兒接受公共教育的決議。市法院法官馬奎爾,根據(jù)美國(guó)憲法第十四條修正案裁定:因?yàn)樗呐畠?/p>

26、瑪米是美國(guó)公民,所以她不能拒絕平等的受教育機(jī)會(huì)。此外,法官馬奎爾認(rèn)為對(duì)中國(guó)兒童收稅不公平。國(guó)家公共教學(xué)院長(zhǎng)韋爾徹對(duì)這個(gè)決定反應(yīng)非常憤怒。宣稱這是一個(gè)“可怕的災(zāi)難”,并且問(wèn)道:“我們要放棄我們孩子的教育,為中國(guó)人的教育而推翻我們自己的嗎?”</p><p>  對(duì)法院判決的反應(yīng),加州議會(huì)通過(guò)立法,允許學(xué)區(qū)為蒙古族設(shè)立隔離學(xué)校。這項(xiàng)立法授權(quán)舊金山教育委員會(huì),建立一個(gè)亞洲人的獨(dú)立學(xué)校。1902年當(dāng)黃系質(zhì)疑出席隔離機(jī)構(gòu)的

27、要求時(shí),法院肯定了這一舉動(dòng)。最后,來(lái)自美國(guó)華人社區(qū)的壓力結(jié)束了種族隔離。1921年,美國(guó)華人教育學(xué)家瑪麗通過(guò)展示中國(guó)學(xué)生和白人學(xué)人智商測(cè)試的成績(jī),質(zhì)疑了隔離政策。由于中國(guó)人口分散在城市,傳統(tǒng)白人學(xué)校被迫向中國(guó)學(xué)生敞開(kāi)大門。1949年研究發(fā)現(xiàn):正規(guī)學(xué)校的種族隔離結(jié)束了,但是原來(lái)的斯托克頓學(xué)校仍然都是中國(guó)人。[6]</p><p><b>  參考文獻(xiàn):</b></p><p

28、>  [1] 姚宗立. 大洋彼岸的移民國(guó)家——美國(guó)[M]. 武漢大學(xué)出版社,2003, 1:132-137.</p><p>  [2] Adapted from Meyer Weinberg, Asian-American Education:Historical Backgrounds and Current Realities(Mahwah,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

29、,Inc.1997),p.5.</p><p>  [3]Easby,R.今日美國(guó) [M].外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究出版社,2006,1:56-61.</p><p>  [4]U.S Census Bureau March 1998 Current Population Survey, http://www.census.gov/. P96.</p><p>  [5]U.

30、S Bureas of the Cebsus, population estimates, http://www.census.gov.P97.</p><p>  [6] 姬虹. 美國(guó)新移民研究[M]. 知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)出版,2008,1:96-98.</p><p>  Student Diversity</p><p>  The U.S student popula

31、tion will increasingly be more diverse with regard to race, ethnicity, and language as a result of changes in U.S.immigration laws.Since the 1970s, large numbers of new immigrants to the United States made the education

32、of differing ethnic and language groups a major issue. In Los Angeles, New York City, and cities scattered across the country, neighborhoods identified with emigrants from particular South American,Caribbean,Asian,and Ce

33、ntral American countries sprang up in </p><p>  The new wave of immigration into the United States since the 1970s was made possible by the Immigration Act of 1965.before 1965; immigration was determined by

34、the ethnic quota section of the 1924 Immigration Act. Under the 1924 act, passed during a period of extreme racism, the annual quota of a national group allowed to immigrate to the United States was determined by the per

35、centage to which the total U.S. population in 1920 comprised that group. The openly stated purpose of the 1924 immigratio</p><p>  As a consequence of the 1924 Immigration Act, the depression of the 1930s, a

36、nd World War II, immigration to the United States declined from the late 1920s through the early 1950s.Immigration began to increase again in the 1950s and underwent a dramatic change after passage of the 1965 Immigratio

37、n Act .Before 1965, the proportion of emigrants from Europe remained approximately constant compared with those from Asia and rest of the Americas. But after1965, the proportion of emigrants from Europe d</p><

38、p>  Between the late 1960s and the twenty-first century, the largest number of immigrants each year came from Mexico. In recent years, more emigrants have arrived from Asian sources, although Mexico continues to provi

39、de more than any other single country. In 1969, the order of immigrant sources to the United States was Mexico, Italy, the Philippines, Canada, and Greece. By 1973, Canada send Greece dropped off the list, which then rea

40、d Mexico, the Philippines, Cuba, Korea, and Italy. Two years later </p><p>  During the 1980s, the Asian population of the United States grew by 70 percent from 3.8 million in 1980 to 6.5 million in 1988. On

41、e-third of the Asian population settled in California. Asian immigrants represented many nationalities and language groups. At least 80 percent of the Asian immigrants in the 1980s came from China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Vie

42、tnam, Cambodia, Laos, the Philippines, Japan, South Korea and Micronesia. Most of the Asian immigrants have higher professional and educational traini</p><p>  Educational Experience of Immigrants to the Uni

43、ted States</p><p>  Immigrant groups arrive with a variety of educational backgrounds. For instance, studies of Chinese immigrants in New York City found a vast range of educational achievement. Those living

44、 in Chinatown arrived with primarily working-class backgrounds and limited exposure to formal learning. One study found that the roughly 85 percent of Chinatown residents in New York, Boston, and San Francisco had not at

45、tended secondary school. The children of these immigrants often struggle in school because of</p><p>  Asian Amerian Students and U.S. Schools</p><p>  Similar to Mexican Americans, Asian Americ

46、ans did not receive a warm welcome by many Anglo American citzens.They were not eligible for citizenship because the 1790 Naturalization Act limited naturalized citizenship to “free white persons.”Children born in the U.

47、S. of Asian immigrant parents were U.S. citizens by birth. </p><p>  The first Chinese immigrants arrived in California in the 1850s to join the gold rush. In search of the Golden Mountain, these first arriv

48、als were free laborers who paid their own transportation to the gold fields of California. By 1852, there were about 2000 Chinese immigrants in California. By the 1860s, approximately 16000 Chinese immigrants were workin

49、g in the California gold fields. But as mining profits decreased, the Chinese immigrants found themselves without enough money to return to th</p><p>  Japanese immigrated at a later date because a 1639 Japa

50、nese law forbade travel to foreign countries. Circumstances began to change in 1869.By 1884, the Japanese government allowed open recruitment by Hawaiian planters. Between 1885 and 1920, as many as 20000 Japanese immigra

51、ted to Hawaii and 18000 to the U.S. mainland. Adding to the Asian population were 8000 Koreans who immigrated, primarily to Hawaii, between 1903 and 1920.Between 1907 and1917, when immigration from India was restricted,

52、6400 </p><p>  The white-only provisions of the 1790 Naturalization Act and other laws necessitated U.S. courts to deal with the racial classification of Asian Americans. In the nineteenth century, Californi

53、a laws simply classified as Mongolian those immigrants from northern and southern Asia,southest Asia, and India.Later,despite the wide-ranging cultural and language differences between these regions, European Americans u

54、sed the term Asian in reference to immigrants and their descents from these differing ar</p><p>  Confusion over the legal status of Asians was exemplified by the 1855 case of Chan Yong.A federal district co

55、urt in California ruled that under the 1790 Naturalization Act citizenship was restricted to whites only and, consequently, immigrant Chinese, such as Chan Yong,were not eligible for U.S. citizenship.</p><p>

56、;  The combination of court rulings and restrictive citizenship laws were used to deny Asian ownership of land. In the 1920s, laws were passed in California, Washington, Arizona, Oregon, Idaho, Nebraska, Texas, Kansas, L

57、ouisiana, Montana, New Mexico, Minnesota, and Missouri denying the right to own land to individuals who were ineligible for U.S. citezenship.The purpose of these laws was to deny land ownership to Asians.</p><

58、p>  Naturalization laws and court rulings underwent rapid change during World War II. Prior to the outbreak of hostilities against Japan, most Anglo Americans seemed to operate from the position that all Asians were t

59、he same and that it was difficult to discern physical differences. However, during World War II, China was a U.S. ally while Japan was the enemy. Consequently, popular media, including radio,movies, newspapers,and magazi

60、nes, depicted Chinese, in contrast to images presented earlier in t</p><p>  As a result of wartime conditions, the ban on naturalization of Chinese was ignored and between 15000 and 20000 Chinese American m

61、en and women joined all branches of the military. In 1943, Congress rescinded the Chinese Exclusion Law and granted Chinese immigrants the right to become naturalized citizens but established a limited immigration quota

62、for Chinese of only 105 each year. Naturalization rights were not extended to immigrants from India and the Philippines until 1946, with each country </p><p>  In contrast to treatment of Chinese, Japanese A

63、merican citizenship status was completely ignored with the internment in concentration camps of more than 100000 Japanese Americans during World War II.Many of these Japanese Americans were U.S. citizens because they had

64、 been born in the United States.</p><p>  Why were Japanese Americans interred in concentration camps but not the descendants of other U.S. enemies, such as German and Italian Americans? Because “the Occiden

65、tal eye cannot rapidly distinguish one Japanese resident from another “argued three lawyers working for the U.S. Justice Department.Adding to the demands to place Japanese citizens in concentration camps were the conclus

66、ions of the U.S. government report on the bombing of Pearl Harbor, which called the Japanese an “enemy race “and cl</p><p>  The citizenship issue for Asian Americans was finally resolved in 1952 when zhe Mc

67、Carran-Walter Act rescinded the racial restrictions of the 1730 Naturalization Act. It had taken over 160 years for U.S.leaders to decide that naturalized citizenship would not be restricted to whites. The Japanese Ameri

68、can Citizens League played an active role in eliminating the white-only provisions in immigration laws. A Japanese American Citizens League member, Harry Tamaki, commented after the passage of the M</p><p> 

69、 The educational experiences of Asian Americans have paralleled their public image in the United States. By public image, I mean the representation of Asian Americans that appears in the popular press and media that is d

70、ominated by European Americans. In his study of the portrayal of Asian Americans in U.S. popular culture, Robert Lee identified five major images of Asians-“the coolie, the deviant, the yellow peril, the model minority,

71、and the gook.”As he points out, each image, including that of</p><p>  Prior to World War II, educational discrimination and segregation resulted from the images held by many European Americans of Asian Amer

72、icans as the coolies, deviants, and yellow peril. The coolie image was that of the servile Asian worker who was willing to work endless hours at low wages and accept substandard living conditions: this image was consider

73、ed a threat to the standard of living of the white working-class family. The deviant image was that of the Chinese opium den and Asian sexual fr</p><p>  The image of Asians as the model minority evolved dur

74、ing the civil rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s.In the popular mind of European Americans, Asians were not only the model minority but also the model students. This image is strikingly different from earlier images

75、of coolie and yellow peril.However, European Americans used the model minority image to criticize African Americans and Hispanics. As writer Frank Chin said in 1974 regarding the model minority image, “Whites love us bec

76、ause we</p><p>  Ironically, the stereotype of a model minority student has caused many educators to overlook the educational problems encountered by many Asian American students in U.S. schools. Part of the

77、 problem is the tendency for non-Asians to lump all Asian Americans together. In fact, Asian Americans represent of different cultures and nations including , as Valerie Okay Pang indicates in her article “ Asian America

78、ns Children : “A Diverse Population ,” “Cambodian, Chinese , East Indian , Filipino , Gamb</p><p>  The diverse of Asian Americans also reflects a wide range of adjustment to conditions in the United States.

79、 Most non-Asians think of Asian Americans as successful enterprises and professionals who were model students while in school and quickly moved up the economic ladder after graduation. In fact, a report issued in 1994 by

80、 the Asian Pacific American Public Institute and the Asian American Center suggests that many Asian Americans face a difficult economic life in the United State. For instanc</p><p>  While economic figures h

81、ighlight the plight of many Asian Americans, history points out the educational discrimination encountered by Asian American students. In All Deliberate Speed, Charles Wallenberg tells the story of the denial of equal ed

82、ucational opportunity to Asian Americans in California school. With cries of yellow peril coming from the European American population, the state superintendent of public instruction in California, William Welcher, point

83、ed out in 1884 that the state consti</p><p>  In reaction to the court decision, the California State Assembly passed legislation allowing school districts to establish segregated schools for Mongolians. Thi

84、s legislation empowered the San Francisco Board of Education to establish a segregated school for Asians. The court affirmed this action in 1902, when Wong Him challenged the requirement of attending a segregated institu

85、tion. Eventually, pressure from the Chinese American community brought an end to segregation. In 1921, Chinese American</p><p><b>  畢業(yè)論文任務(wù)書</b></p><p>  論文題目: 美國(guó)移民多元化

86、 </p><p><b>  論文選題的意義:</b></p><p>  美國(guó)是世界上教育最發(fā)達(dá)的國(guó)家之一,同時(shí),它也是一個(gè)多元化的國(guó)家。隨著經(jīng)濟(jì)、文化等各個(gè)因素的影響,進(jìn)入美國(guó)的各種族,宗教、語(yǔ)言的移民者越來(lái)越多,隨著人口的增多,社會(huì)也在不斷發(fā)展。學(xué)生是祖國(guó)的未來(lái),因而,在這個(gè)多元化的社會(huì)中,了解美國(guó)移民人口變化迅速的

87、原因,了解美國(guó)移民教育的經(jīng)歷、美國(guó)亞裔學(xué)生和美國(guó)學(xué)校、處理好學(xué)生流動(dòng)的多元化非常重要,對(duì)我國(guó)的教育有很大的幫助 。 </p><p><b>  論文主要研究?jī)?nèi)容:</b></p><p>  美國(guó)學(xué)生的人口越來(lái)越多樣化導(dǎo)致了美國(guó)移民法的改變。大量的美國(guó)移民使得不同種族、語(yǔ)言群

88、體的教育成為了一個(gè)主要的問(wèn)題。移民者逐漸在美國(guó)各州以外國(guó)人的身份定居工作。1965年移民條例設(shè)立新的優(yōu)惠政策,美國(guó)開(kāi)始了新移民潮。從1970s以來(lái),經(jīng)濟(jì)、政治和家庭成為移民的主要原因。1978年64%的外國(guó)出生人數(shù)進(jìn)入美國(guó)成為最大的移民。 </p><p><b>  選題來(lái)源:</b></p>

89、<p>  American Education </p><p>  Joel Spring — 11th ed.

90、 </p><p>  New School University </p><p&g

91、t;<b>  參考資料:</b></p><p>  《大洋彼岸的移民國(guó)家——美國(guó)》 </p><p>  《 美國(guó)新移民研究》(1965年至今) </p><

92、;p>  《New York Times》 </p><p>  《移民美國(guó)》 </p><p>  《教育???

93、</p><p>  《今日美國(guó)》 </p><p><b>  畢業(yè)論文進(jìn)程安排</b></p><p>  福州黎明職業(yè)技術(shù)學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文) 開(kāi)題報(bào)告</p><p>  系:外語(yǔ)系 專業(yè):應(yīng)用英語(yǔ)

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