包裝設(shè)計(jì)外文資料翻譯--包裝對(duì)食品發(fā)展的影響

1、<p>　　附件1：外文資料翻譯譯文</p><p>　　包裝對(duì)食品發(fā)展的影響</p><p>　　一個(gè)消費(fèi)者對(duì)某個(gè)產(chǎn)品的第一印象來(lái)說(shuō)包裝是至關(guān)重要的，包括溝通的可取性，可接受性，健康飲食形象等。食品能夠提供廣泛的產(chǎn)品和包裝組合，傳達(dá)自己加工的形象感知給消費(fèi)者，例如新鮮包裝/準(zhǔn)備，冷藏，冷凍，超高溫?zé)o菌，消毒（滅菌），烘干產(chǎn)品。</p><p>　　食物的

2、最重要的質(zhì)量屬性之一，是它的味道，其影響人類(lèi)的感官知覺(jué)，即味覺(jué)和嗅覺(jué)。味道可以很大程度作退化的處理和/或擴(kuò)展存儲(chǔ)。其他質(zhì)量屬性，也可能受到影響，包括顏色，質(zhì)地和營(yíng)養(yǎng)成分。食品質(zhì)量不僅取決于原材料，添加劑，加工和包裝的方法，而且其預(yù)期的貨架壽命（保質(zhì)期）過(guò)程中遇到的分布和儲(chǔ)存條件的質(zhì)量。越來(lái)越多的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)當(dāng)中，食品生產(chǎn)商，零售商和供應(yīng)商；和質(zhì)量審核供應(yīng)商有顯著提高食品質(zhì)量以及急劇增加包裝食品的選擇。這些改進(jìn)也得益于嚴(yán)格的冷藏鏈中的溫度控制和越

3、來(lái)越挑剔的消費(fèi)者。</p><p>　　保質(zhì)期的一個(gè)定義是：在食品加工和包裝組合下，在食品的容器和條件，在銷(xiāo)售點(diǎn)分布在特定系統(tǒng)的時(shí)間能保持令人滿(mǎn)意的食味品質(zhì)。保質(zhì)期，可以用來(lái)作為一個(gè)新鮮的概念，促進(jìn)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)的工具。延期或保質(zhì)期長(zhǎng)的產(chǎn)品，還提供產(chǎn)品的使用時(shí)間，方便以及減少浪費(fèi)食物的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，消費(fèi)者和/或零售商。包裝產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量和保質(zhì)期的主題是在第3章中詳細(xì)討論。</p><p>　　包裝為消費(fèi)者提供有

4、關(guān)產(chǎn)品的重要信息，在許多情況下，使用的包裝和/或產(chǎn)品，包括事實(shí)信息如重量，體積，配料，制造商的細(xì)節(jié)，營(yíng)養(yǎng)價(jià)值，烹飪和開(kāi)放的指示，除了法律準(zhǔn)則的最小尺寸的文字和數(shù)字，有定義的各類(lèi)產(chǎn)品。消費(fèi)者尋求更詳細(xì)的產(chǎn)品信息，同時(shí)，許多標(biāo)簽已經(jīng)成為多語(yǔ)種。標(biāo)簽的可讀性是為視障人士的問(wèn)題，這很可能成為一個(gè)對(duì)越來(lái)越多的老年人口越來(lái)越重要的問(wèn)題。</p><p>　　食物的選擇和包裝創(chuàng)新的一個(gè)主要驅(qū)動(dòng)力是為了方便消費(fèi)者的需求。這里有許

5、多方便的現(xiàn)代包裝所提供的屬性，這些措施包括易于接入和開(kāi)放，處置和處理，產(chǎn)品的知名度，再密封性能，微波加熱性，延長(zhǎng)保質(zhì)期等。在英國(guó)和其他發(fā)達(dá)經(jīng)濟(jì)體顯示出生率下降和快速增長(zhǎng)的一個(gè)相對(duì)富裕的老人人口趨勢(shì)，伴隨著更加苛刻的年輕消費(fèi)者，他們將要求和期望改進(jìn)包裝的功能，如方便包揭開(kāi)（百貨配送研究所，IGD）。</p><p>　　對(duì)零售商而言存在有一個(gè)高的成本，供應(yīng)和服務(wù)的貨架體系。沒(méi)有儲(chǔ)備足夠的產(chǎn)品品種或及時(shí)補(bǔ)充庫(kù)存，特別

6、是副食品，如鮮牛奶，可能導(dǎo)致客戶(hù)不滿(mǎn)和流失到競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手的商店，這正需要保證產(chǎn)品供應(yīng)?，F(xiàn)代化的配送和包裝系統(tǒng)，允許消費(fèi)者在購(gòu)買(mǎi)食品時(shí)，他們希望在他們想任何時(shí)間地點(diǎn)都能享用。近幾年消費(fèi)者的選擇已在急劇擴(kuò)大。例如在英國(guó)，20世紀(jì)60年代和90年代之間在一般超市的產(chǎn)品線(xiàn)的數(shù)量從2000年左右上升到超過(guò)18000人（INCPEN）。</p><p>　　自20世紀(jì)70年代以來(lái)，食品衛(wèi)生和安全問(wèn)題已成為日益重要的關(guān)注和選擇食物

7、的驅(qū)動(dòng)力。媒體所關(guān)注的一系列問(wèn)題，如使用化學(xué)添加劑和食品污染事故已警示消費(fèi)者，這些事件都是故意的，惡意篡改的，和在生產(chǎn)過(guò)程意外發(fā)生的。然而，許多消費(fèi)者都沒(méi)有充分認(rèn)識(shí)到包裝在維護(hù)食品安全和質(zhì)量過(guò)程中的重要作用。明顯更改之后的包裝迅速推出，不僅為了保護(hù)消費(fèi)者，而且為了品牌的一個(gè)效果，一直是許多預(yù)包裝食品。另一個(gè)影響一直激勵(lì)消費(fèi)者注重保質(zhì)保鮮、最小加工和對(duì)產(chǎn)品的原產(chǎn)地（OECD）的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)給予更多的關(guān)注。</p><p>

8、　　消費(fèi)者直接通過(guò)他們的購(gòu)買(mǎi)方式和它們所產(chǎn)生的包裝廢棄物對(duì)環(huán)境的影響。消費(fèi)者購(gòu)買(mǎi)包裝作為產(chǎn)品的一部分，包裝的重量，多年來(lái)，所包含的產(chǎn)品，相對(duì)下降。然而，消費(fèi)模式產(chǎn)生了更大容量的包裝，由于人口結(jié)構(gòu)的變化和生活方式的變化，這些情況使得包裝體積，而不是包裝的重量，正成為吸引公眾關(guān)注的關(guān)鍵。此外，朝預(yù)包裝食品和食品包裝服務(wù)的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)，增加了塑料包裝廢棄物進(jìn)入固體廢物流的金額。</p><p>　　零售商和制造商所使用的營(yíng)

9、銷(xiāo)策略之一，是對(duì)環(huán)境的兼容性。然而，消費(fèi)者往往混淆或發(fā)現(xiàn)它很難界定什么是對(duì)環(huán)境負(fù)責(zé)的或友好的包裝。正是這種缺乏明確的含義，至今無(wú)法利用，以使零售商和包裝公司獲得競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)。消費(fèi)者需要明確的信息來(lái)指導(dǎo)他們的行動(dòng)，使大多數(shù)的人差異化。包裝鏈的各部門(mén)負(fù)責(zé)解釋的職能和自身包裝的好處，廠家銷(xiāo)售好的包裝，他們的客戶(hù)，產(chǎn)品的廠家，但這一特定的信息到達(dá)最終顧客相對(duì)較少。</p><p>　　包裝在現(xiàn)代快速消費(fèi)品零售上的發(fā)展，反過(guò)來(lái)

10、成了促使以滿(mǎn)足其需求的演變的關(guān)鍵。最重要的發(fā)展為食品包裝行業(yè)已出現(xiàn)大型零售集團(tuán)。這些群體產(chǎn)生巨大的影響和控制生產(chǎn)什么，如何介紹產(chǎn)品和它們是如何分配商店的。大型零售商處理的包裝食品雜貨市場(chǎng)的主要份額對(duì)食品生產(chǎn)廠家相關(guān)的包裝供應(yīng)商施加相當(dāng)大的影響。因此，重要的包裝供應(yīng)商充分了解市場(chǎng)需求和快速響應(yīng)變化。此外，買(mǎi)方力量集中在零售層面是指制造商可能需要修改它們的分布和包裝業(yè)務(wù)反應(yīng)的結(jié)構(gòu)變化的零售。</p><p>　　論包

11、裝多種食品零售環(huán)境可考慮其在品牌競(jìng)爭(zhēng)和零售物流中的作用。在食品銷(xiāo)售流通中一個(gè)重要的關(guān)鍵，一個(gè)品牌的成功，或僅僅是生存在一個(gè)高度競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的市場(chǎng)，包裝起著至關(guān)重要的作用。包裝設(shè)計(jì)創(chuàng)新存在于一線(xiàn)之間的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)品牌的主要零售商和產(chǎn)品制造商，已在近年來(lái)推動(dòng)巨大的零售增長(zhǎng)，行業(yè)激烈的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)和日益苛刻和復(fù)雜的消費(fèi)者。在個(gè)人品牌/產(chǎn)品的基礎(chǔ)上，成功取決于產(chǎn)品制造商的快速創(chuàng)新的反應(yīng)的主要趨勢(shì)。一個(gè)最有效的回應(yīng)方式是通過(guò)獨(dú)特的包裝，這已經(jīng)成為一個(gè)品牌成功關(guān)鍵因素。零

12、售商自有品牌產(chǎn)品與制造商的品牌在幾乎每一個(gè)產(chǎn)品類(lèi)別競(jìng)爭(zhēng)激烈。品牌差異化可以提高創(chuàng)新的包裝設(shè)計(jì)，賦予審美和/或功能屬性。</p><p>　　包裝在預(yù)測(cè)零售商的形象，贏得競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)方面起著重要的支撐作用。一般零售商自己的品牌形象的目的是積極的消息，如高品質(zhì)的，健康的飲食，新鮮，環(huán)保意識(shí)還是物有所值的整體。例如，零售商是熱衷于環(huán)保意識(shí)，推動(dòng)部分為可生物降解、可堆肥包裝成長(zhǎng)的利基市場(chǎng)，他們正在使用它作為與客戶(hù)的溝通點(diǎn)。&

13、lt;/p><p>　　包裝與廣告是密切相關(guān)的，但它遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過(guò)了廣告，重點(diǎn)是因?yàn)樗刻煸诩依锖驮诹闶圬浖苌舷蛳M(fèi)者介紹產(chǎn)品。商品顯示，目前用一個(gè)有吸引力的或有趣的方式和媒體廣告與包裝的形象一致的包裝設(shè)計(jì)也有利于促進(jìn)品牌。品牌的擁有者是經(jīng)常負(fù)責(zé)采購(gòu)操作，促銷(xiāo)活動(dòng)的關(guān)鍵是通過(guò)利用有效的包裝，存在多種返還優(yōu)惠的方式，如免費(fèi)額外的產(chǎn)品，退返現(xiàn)金，特別版，新的改進(jìn)產(chǎn)品，鋁箔新鮮包裝。</p><p>　　

14、零售商的忠誠(chéng)卡計(jì)劃使用條碼掃描信息購(gòu)買(mǎi)和銷(xiāo)售決策，對(duì)其產(chǎn)生了很大的影響。他們的任務(wù)是更好地利用這一信息消費(fèi)行為為目的，并建立品牌忠誠(chéng)度。零售商還可以使用此信息來(lái)評(píng)估新的包裝設(shè)計(jì)有效性，返還促銷(xiāo)和新產(chǎn)品銷(xiāo)售。</p><p>　　包裝的作用在多個(gè)零售物流配送和店內(nèi)商品有嚴(yán)格的限制。零售商是接受包裝，降低經(jīng)營(yíng)成本，增加存貨周轉(zhuǎn)率，轉(zhuǎn)化為吸引力商品顯示器 - 如預(yù)組裝或易于裝配顯示 - 滿(mǎn)足物流服務(wù)水平（可靠性，響應(yīng)速

15、度和產(chǎn)品的可用性）。例如，聯(lián)合運(yùn)輸銷(xiāo)售點(diǎn)包裝節(jié)省商店勞動(dòng)力通過(guò)更快貨架載荷，從而避免需要使用有潛在危險(xiǎn)的不安全的切割工具，提供方便的機(jī)會(huì)，并減少了污染源的可能。</p><p>　　總經(jīng)銷(xiāo)成本影響，通過(guò)對(duì)價(jià)格的影響（麥金農(nóng)，1989）的需求總量。對(duì)于一些快速移動(dòng)商品型產(chǎn)品，如巴氏殺菌奶，分銷(xiāo)及零售商品成本產(chǎn)品總成本占高達(dá)50％或更多的銷(xiāo)售價(jià)格通常是一個(gè)相當(dāng)大的比例。包裝材料和容器還增加了成本而設(shè)計(jì)出最佳包裝系統(tǒng)可

16、以大大降低在零售連鎖配送的成本。發(fā)展全球食品供應(yīng)鏈意味著，許多生產(chǎn)點(diǎn)位置遠(yuǎn)離消費(fèi)點(diǎn)，往往導(dǎo)致配送成本較高。</p><p>　　通過(guò)改善供應(yīng)鏈運(yùn)作效率，進(jìn)行分銷(xiāo)成本控制是一個(gè)零售商競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)關(guān)鍵。零售商必須最大限度地發(fā)揮在分銷(xiāo)渠道（西，1989年）的運(yùn)作效率。分配目標(biāo)是以最少的成本為客戶(hù)提供必要的服務(wù)水平，最具成本效益后勤包裝標(biāo)識(shí)變得更加重要。配送成本領(lǐng)域，包括倉(cāng)儲(chǔ)，庫(kù)存，運(yùn)輸，管理包裝；倉(cāng)儲(chǔ)，庫(kù)存，運(yùn)輸和儲(chǔ)存勞動(dòng)

17、是零售商的主要成本區(qū)而運(yùn)輸，倉(cāng)儲(chǔ)包裝食品制造商主要成本區(qū)。</p><p>　　多種零售食品供應(yīng)鏈效率依賴(lài)于零售商，食品生產(chǎn)商和包裝供應(yīng)商之間密切溝通。它還依賴(lài)于準(zhǔn)確的訂單預(yù)測(cè)可能的市場(chǎng)需求。信息技術(shù)大規(guī)模投資，使更緊密的供應(yīng)鏈的整合，并通過(guò)電子數(shù)據(jù)交換（EDI），確保股票上剛剛在實(shí)時(shí)（JIT）的基礎(chǔ)上移動(dòng)商店，出售屆滿(mǎn)前條形碼是一個(gè)代碼，使全行業(yè)的零售產(chǎn)品單位鑒定通過(guò)一個(gè)獨(dú)特的參考號(hào)碼，主要應(yīng)用在零售結(jié)帳電子銷(xiāo)

18、售系統(tǒng)（EPOS）。小學(xué)，中學(xué)和大專(zhuān)院校包裝使用鑒定的條形碼，使有效的分配管理和庫(kù)存控制。</p><p><b>　　附件2：外文原文</b></p><p>　　FOOD PACKING TECHNOLOGY</p><p>　　Packaging is critical to a consumer’s first impression o

19、f a product, communi-</p><p>　　cating desirability, acceptability, healthy eating image etc. Food is available in a</p><p>　　wide range of product and pack combinations that convey their own pro

20、cessed</p><p>　　image perception to the consumer e.g. freshly packed/prepared, chilled, frozen,</p><p>　　ultra-heat treated (UHT) aseptic, in-can sterilised and dried products.</p><p&

21、gt;　　One of the most important quality attributes of food, affecting human sen-</p><p>　　sory perception, is its flavour, i.e. taste and smell. Flavour can be significantly</p><p>　　degraded by

22、processing and/or extended storage. Other quality attributes that</p><p>　　may also be affected include colour, texture and nutritional content. The quality</p><p>　　of a food depends not only o

23、n the quality of raw ingredients, additives, methods</p><p>　　of processing and packaging, but also on distribution and storage conditions</p><p>　　encountered during its expected shelf life. In

24、creasing competition amongst</p><p>　　food producers, retailers and packaging suppliers; and quality audits of suppliers</p><p>　　have resulted in significant improvements in food quality as wel

25、l as a dramatic</p><p>　　increase in the choice of packaged food. These improvements have also been</p><p>　　aided by tighter temperature control in the cold chain and a more discerning</p>

26、;<p><b>　　consumer.</b></p><p>　　One definition of shelf life is: the time during which a combination of food</p><p>　　processing and packaging can maintain satisfactory eatin

27、g quality under the</p><p>　　particular system by which the food is distributed in the containers and the</p><p>　　conditions at the point of sale. Shelf life can be used as a marketing tool for

28、</p><p>　　promoting the concept of freshness. Extended or long shelf life products also</p><p>　　provide the consumer and/or retailer with the time convenience of product use</p><p>

29、;　　as well as a reduced risk of food wastage. The subject of Packaged product</p><p>　　quality and shelf life is discussed in detail in Chapter 3. </p><p>　　Packaging provides the consumer with

30、important information about the</p><p>　　product and, in many cases, use of the pack and/or product. These include</p><p>　　facts such as weight, volume, ingredients, the manufacturer’s details,

31、</p><p>　　nutritional value, cooking and opening instructions. In addition to legal</p><p>　　guidelines on the minimum size of lettering and numbers, there are definitions</p><p>　　

32、for the various types of product. Consumers are seeking more detailed</p><p>　　nformation about products and, at the same time, many labels have become</p><p>　　multilingual. Legibility of label

33、s is an issue for the visually impaired</p><p>　　and this is likely to become more important with an increasingly elderly</p><p>　　population..</p><p>　　A major driver of food choic

34、e and packaging innovation is the consumer</p><p>　　demand for convenience. There are many convenience attributes offered by</p><p>　　modern packaging. These include ease of access and opening,

35、disposal and</p><p>　　handling, product visibility, resealability, microwaveability, prolonged shelf</p><p>　　life etc. Demographic trends in the age profile of the UK and other advanced</p&g

36、t;<p>　　economies reveal a declining birth rate and rapid growth of a relatively afflu-</p><p>　　ent elderly population. They, along with a more demanding young consumer,</p><p>　　will re

37、quire and expect improved pack functionality, such as ease of pack</p><p>　　opening (The Institute of Grocery Distribution, IGD).</p><p>　　There is a high cost to supplying and servicing the ret

38、ailer’s shelf. Failure to</p><p>　　stock a sufficient variety of product or replenish stock in time, especially for</p><p>　　staple foods such as fresh milk, can lead to customer dissatisfaction

39、 and</p><p>　　defection to a competitor’s store, where product availability is assured. Mod-</p><p>　　ern distribution and packaging systems allow consumers to buy food when and</p><p

40、>　　where they want them. Consumer choice has expanded dramatically in recent</p><p>　　years. In the UK, for example, between the 1960s and 1990s the number of</p><p>　　product lines in the av

41、erage supermarket rose from around 2000 to over 18 000.</p><p>　　. Since the 1970s, food health and safety have become increasingly major</p><p>　　concerns and drivers of food choices. Media att

42、ention has alerted consumers to</p><p>　　a range of issues such as the use of chemical additives and food contamination</p><p>　　incidents. These incidents have been both deliberate, by maliciou

43、s tampering,</p><p>　　and accidental, occurring during the production process. However, many</p><p>　　consumers are not fully aware of the importance of packaging in maintaining</p><p

44、>　　food safety and quality. One effect has been the rapid introduction of tamper</p><p>　　evident closures for many pre-packaged foods in order to not only protect the</p><p>　　consumer but a

45、lso the brand. Another impact has been to motivate consumers</p><p>　　to give more attention to the criteria of freshness/shelf life, minimum processing</p><p>　　and the products oringin..</p

46、><p>　　Consumers have direct environmental impact through the way they</p><p>　　purchase and the packaging waste they generate. Consumers purchase</p><p>　　packaging as part of the pro

47、duct and, over the years, the weight of packaging</p><p>　　has declined relative to that of the product contained. However, consumption</p><p>　　patterns have generated larger volumes of packagi

48、ng due to changing demo-</p><p>　　graphics and lifestyles. It is the volume of packaging rather than the weight</p><p>　　of packaging that is attracting critical public attention. In addition, t

49、he trend</p><p>　　toward increased pre-packaged foods and food service packaging has</p><p>　　increased the amount of plastics packaging waste entering the solid waste</p><p>　　stre

50、am. Packaging has been a key to the evolution of modern fast-moving consu</p><p>　　goods retailing that in turn has spurred on packaging developments to meet its</p><p>　　requirements. The most

51、significant development for the food packaging supply</p><p>　　industries has been the emergence of large retail groups. These groups exert</p><p>　　enormous influence and control over what is p

52、roduced, how products are pre-</p><p>　　sented and how they are distributed to stores. The large retailers handle a</p><p>　　major share of the packaged grocery market and exert considerable inf

53、luence</p><p>　　on food manufacturers and associated packaging suppliers. It is, therefore, import</p><p>　　ant for packaging suppliers to be fully aware of market demand and respond</p>

54、<p>　　quickly to changes. In addition, the concentration of buyer power at the retail</p><p>　　level means that manufacturers may have to modify their distribution and</p><p>　　packaging op

55、erations in response to structural changes in retailing.</p><p>　　Packaging for fast-moving consumer goods (f.m.c.g.) has been referred to as</p><p>　　part of the food retail marketing mix and t

56、hus closely affects all the other</p><p>　　marketing variables i.e. product, price, promotion, and place (Nickels & Jolsen,</p><p>　　The discussion on packaging in the multiple food retail e

57、nvironment may be</p><p>　　considered in terms of its role in brand competition and retail logistics.</p><p>　　The role of packaging in brand competition. Packaging plays a vital role in&l

58、t;/p><p>　　food marketing representing a significant key to a brand’s success or mere sur-</p><p>　　vival in a highly competitive marketplace. Packaging innovation and design</p><p>　　

59、are in the front line of competition between the brands of both major retailers</p><p>　　and product manufacturers, having been driven in recent years by dramatic</p><p>　　retail growth, intense

60、 industry competition and an increasingly demanding and</p><p>　　sophisticated consumer. On an individual product/brand basis, success is</p><p>　　dependent on the product manufacturer’s rapid i

61、nnovative response to major</p><p>　　trends. One of the most effective ways to respond is through distinctive pack-</p><p>　　aging, and this has become one key factor in the success of a brand.

62、The retail-</p><p>　　ers’ own brand products compete intensely with manufacturers’ brands in</p><p>　　virtually every product category. Brand differentiation can be enhanced by drive the growing

63、 niche market for biodegradable and compostable packaging.</p><p>　　They are using it as a point of communication with their customers.</p><p>　　Packaging is closely linked to advertising but it

64、 is far more focused than</p><p>　　advertising because it presents the product to the consumer daily in the home</p><p>　　and on the retail shelf. Merchandising displays that present the pack de

65、sign in</p><p>　　an attractive or interesting way and media advertising consistent with the</p><p>　　pack’s image also serve to promote the brand. The brand owner is frequently</p><p&

66、gt;　　responsible for the merchandising operation. A key to promotional activities</p><p>　　is through effective use of packaging and there exist many kinds of on-pack</p><p>　　promotions such as

67、 free extra product, money-off, special edition, new improved</p><p>　　Bar code scanning information linked to the use of retailers’ loyalty card</p><p>　　schemes has made a big impact on buying

68、 and marketing decision-making</p><p>　　by retailers. Their task is to make better use of this information on con-</p><p>　　sumer behaviour for promotional purposes and to build store brand loya

69、lty.</p><p>　　Retailers can also use this information to evaluate the effectiveness of new</p><p>　　pack designs, on-pack promotions and the sales appeal of new products.</p><p>　　T

70、he role of packaging in multiple retail logistics. There are tight constraints</p><p>　　on physical distribution and in-store merchandising. The retailer is receptive</p><p>　　to packaging that

71、 reduces operating costs, increases inventory turnover, trans-</p><p>　　forms to attractive merchandising displays – such as pre-assembled or easy-</p><p>　　to-assemble aisle displays – and sati

72、sfies logistics service levels (reliability,</p><p>　　responsiveness and product availability). For example, combined transit and</p><p>　　point-of-sale packaging saves store labour through fast

73、er shelf loading, pro-</p><p>　　vides ease of access to product thereby obviating the need to use potentially</p><p>　　dangerous unsafe cutting tools, and presents an opportunity for source</

74、p><p><b>　　reduce.</b></p><p>　　The total distribution cost affects the total volume of demand through its</p><p>　　influence on price (McKinnon, 1989). For some fast-movin

75、g commodity type</p><p>　　products, such as pasteurised milk, the cost of distribution and retail mer-</p><p>　　chandising is usually a sizeable proportion of total product cost representing<

76、/p><p>　　up to 50 per cent or more of the sales price. The cost of packaging materials</p><p>　　and containers also adds slightly to the cost but design of the optimal</p><p>　　packagi

77、ng system can significantly reduce cost in the retail distribution</p><p>　　chain. The development of global food supply chains has meant that many</p><p>　　points of production have located fur

78、ther away from the points of consump-</p><p>　　tion, often resulting in higher distribution cost.</p><p>　　Controlling distribution cost through improved operational efficiency in</p><

79、;p>　　the supply chain is a key to competitive advantage for a retailer. The retailer</p><p>　　must maximise operational efficiency in the distribution channel (West, 1989).</p><p>　　The goal

80、of distribution is to deliver the requisite level of service to customers</p><p>　　at the least cost. The identification of the most cost-effective logistical packaging</p><p>　　is becoming more

81、 crucial. Cost areas in distribution include storage, inventory,</p><p>　　transport, administration and packaging. Storage, inventory, transport and</p><p>　　store labour are major cost areas fo

82、r the retailer while transport, storage and</p><p>　　packaging are the main cost areas for the food manufacturer.</p><p>　　The efficiency of the multiple retail food supply chain relies on close

83、 com-</p><p>　　munication between retailers, food manufacturers and packaging suppliers. It</p><p>　　also relies on accurate order forecasting of likely demand. Massive investment</p><

84、;p>　　in information technology has enabled closer integration of the supply chain</p><p>　　and, through electronic data interchange (EDI), has ensured that stock moves</p><p>　　to stores on a

85、 just-in-time (JIT) basis, and is sold well before the expiry date.</p><p>　　The bar code is a code that allows the industry-wide identification of retail</p><p>　　product units by means of a un

86、ique reference number, the major application</p><p>　　being the electronic point of sale (EPoS) system at the retail checkout. The use</p><p>　　of the bar code for identification of primary, sec